During two separate workshops in February 1993, two groups of teachers drafted two teaching units of 12 lessons. These workshops were supported by one Swazi and two UK researchers who acted as resource people. The units covered the required content of the Form 2 integrated science syllabus and were designed to replace the standard SWISP units on 'Air and Life' (AL) and 'Electricity' (EL). Drafts of a Teachers' Guide and a Pupils' Workbook for these units were edited in readiness for a third (pilot-induction) workshop for all the participant teachers. Part of the pilot-induction process was a programme of in-class support provided to each participant by the resource people during the period of class trials of the draft materials between March and August 1994.
Feed-back data were collected by the Swazi researcher through classroom observations, and interviews with teachers and selected students. In addition, towards the end of the trial period, a one day experience exchange workshop on the teaching approach was held. Although all these activities were part of the development phase of the learning materials, the induction process (including the in-school support) and the feed-back collection strategies functioned also as a test-run for the INSET model to be used for the subsequent major research study.
Several logistical problems were met during the execution of development phase of the project. For instance, the unavailability of a local video technician and the unreliability of video equipment to provide footage for sample lessons during the pilot phase, made it impossible to use videos as illustrations during the subsequent induction programme.
During September 1993 UK and Swazi researchers jointly edited the lesson materials for the two units incorporating the student and teacher feed back (Campbell et al., 1994a and 1994b). The materials are commonly known as "the Matsapha Lessons". The Matsapha curriculum materials embody what is termed a "technological approach to science education". This umbrella term describes the following characteristics:
(i) contextualisation - linking science to every day life and the experiences that students may have had or are likely to have(ii) application - helping students to select and apply their science knowledge to solve problems
(iii) investigation - developing science investigative abilities to help students to design and execute valid practical tests.
In terms of contextualisation, lessons focus on events common enough for all pupils to be able to relate to. For example, the problem of a dilapidated car (a skorokoro) failing to start forms the scene for teaching Ohm's law (for the relevant student workbook section, see Box 1). Similarly, the exploration of the 'fizz gas' in cool drinks leads to a lesson on the properties of carbon dioxide (see Box 2).
With regard to application, students are asked to apply their science knowledge to solve problems. The lesson with the skorokoro car ends with asking pupils to explain the starting problem in terms of current and voltage. The lesson with the 'fizz gas' requires them to identify the specific property of carbon dioxide which makes it suitable as cool drink fizz. Revision lessons, such as the one on Silos in Box 3, have been included to purposefully direct pupils to using acquired science ideas to solve a problem. In this case it describes an incident in a traditional underground silo for storing maize over winter.
Investigative skills are developed through planning and carrying out an open-ended experiment. For example, in the lesson on carbon dioxide (Box 2) pupils are asked to design a method of collecting the fizz gas. In another lesson, they are given the task to investigate the relationship between the number of coils of a heating element and the heat produced, as shown in Box 4.
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BOX 1 SKOROKORO Here is the script of a short play. Read it through. Your teacher may ask some people to act it out. It is about Musa's skorokoro car which does not start. Musa is bending forwards looking under the bonnet of the car. He fiddles with the engine. He is annoyed because he does not know what the problem is. Phumi walks by. Phumi: How, Musa, you seem to have a problem. Musa: (knocks his head against the bonnet) Phumi, you gave me fright. Why can't you just say "Good morning" when you meet somebody? Phumi: Good morning, Musa. Musa: Yes, and good morning to you. Thank you. Phumi: I wanted to ask you. have you got a problem with your skorokoro car? Musa: No, not really. I am just cleaning the engine a bit. Phumi: Let's go for a ride then. I like to do some shopping in Mbabane. We need some more mealie meal, otherwise we won't have anything to eat tomorrow. Musa: I see. Well, actually, at the moment the car has a small...., eh,... It is not that it is sick, but it only has a cold, if you know what I mean. Phumi: You mean, it does not work, eh? Your skorokoro does not work, eh? Musa: It does work a bit. When I start the car, it goes: eeeerh, eeerh, eeerh slowly, and then it stops. The thing does not really start. The engine does not get moving round. I don't really know what the problem is. Phumi: Your skorokoro may have a flat battery. That is what I think. I bet your lights do not work either. Musa: Well, let us see. No they don't. But what have lights to do with a flat battery? Didn't you say last time that lights need current and not voltage? Discuss Musa's problem and Phumi's idea. Write down your ideas of what can be done to start the skorokoro. [leading to the standard Ohm's law experiment relating current and voltage] |
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BOX 2 FIZZY DRINKS Coke, Fanta and Sprite are just some of the popular cans of drink in Swaziland. No matter which is our favourite they all have one thing in common. They fizz! They fizz because they contain a gas. This activity is about that gas. Discuss in your group how you could collect test tubes of the gas from a can of fizzy drink. Your teacher will show you the apparatus available. You cannot just pull the ring tag as most of the gas will escape. Your teacher will check your method or suggest what to do. Do not shake the can but try to collect as many tubes of gas as possible. Keep the tubes closed with a stopper. How many tubes of fizz gas did you collect?.................. Look at the gas. What is its colour?............................... Smell the gas (remember how to do this!). What is its smell?............................................................................... Put a burning splint into the gas. What happens? [leading to further tests of carbon dioxide characteristics] |
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BOX 3 SILOS [after completing a fill-in revision sheet for homework] Your teacher has seen the following article in a newspaper: There was panic in the Mabuza homestead. Yesterday afternoon Duma (12) and Themba (7) were asked to collect sancoti (special maize). They had to get it from the storage silo (ingungu). The Mabuzas have dug two large underground storage silos. Each can hold about 15 bags. You have to climb down, using a ladder or a rope. Themba and Duma said they like climbing but yesterday they were in a hurry to go and play soccer. Duma opened the lid of the silo, while Themba collected the ladder. A chicken got curious and saw the maize down below. It jumped in to the silo. Duma climbed down, and Themba followed. When he was on the ladder, Themba felt sick. He quickly climbed out again. He shouted to Duma in the silo: "I am not coming down. You had better lift the bag, and I will take it". There was no answer. Themba got scared and called for help. Make Mabuza found that Duma had fainted in the ingungu, and she quickly pulled him out. Duma recovered soon in the open air. The Mabuza family could not explain what happened. Discuss in your group the following questions 1. Which of the ideas we have learnt about can explain why Duma fainted? Use your homework sheet and list as many points as possible. 2. Why did Themba not faint, but only felt sick? 3. What do you expect will have happened to the chicken? Why? 4. Why is it that the same problems do not happen with modem storage tanks which are above the ground? Now write a letter to the editor of the newspaper to explain what happened in the Mabuza homestead. You should include all the following words: germination |
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BOX 4 HEATER [after a teacher demonstration showing the heating effect of a current carrying wire] Plan your own experiment to investigate if the number or size of turns on the immersion coil has an effect on the heat energy produced. You should consider the following points. * how many different numbers (sizes) of turns on the coil will you try? 7: Use this space to write your plan. Let your teacher check your plan to make sure that what you wish to do is safe. 8: Use this space for your table of results. 9: What conclusions can you draw from your results? 10: Explain your conclusions. 11: How could your plan have been improved? |
In general, each lesson starts with an everyday event closely related to the science concept to be focused on. Students are invited to explain the familiar situation but, at this stage, their speculations are not judged on their scientific validity. After study of the relevant science concepts (the theory) in various ways, e.g. through a practical activity, the students are referred back to the initial example and again asked to explain it but, this time, by applying the conceptual understanding they have gained. More examples and detail may be gleaned from the Matsapha classroom materials themselves (Campbell et al., 1994a and 1994b).
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BOX 5 Pre-workshop homework exercise The Matsapha Lessons Task Sheet Thank you for agreeing to take part in the INSET activity which will introduce you to the Matsapha Lessons and help you to use the materials to teach your Form 2 science classes about Air and Life and Electricity. As the first stage in the INSET you are asked to study the enclosed lesson materials from one of the Matsapha Lessons on Electricity (EL6: Mr Hlophe's car Lights) and to compare these with the SWISP materials for Activity 7.4 from Form 2 SWISP. You should do the following: * Read the lesson materials for EL6: Mr Hlophe's Car Lights. * Consider and make some notes on your opinions of the following: * what is similar about the materials? One of the first sessions of the Induction Workshop will ask you to discuss your views with one or two other teachers who have been asked to do the same task. It is thus important that you spend a little time on this and that you keep some notes of your views (there are no right or wrong answers!). Bring your notes and the EL6 lesson materials to the Induction Workshop. |
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BOX 6 | |
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Workshop programme | |
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Day One: | |
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08.30 |
* registration |
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08.45: session 1 |
* welcome, domestic arrangements and introduction to the purpose of the workshop |
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09.00: session 2 |
* small group discussion of preparatory task (EL6) |
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09.30: session 3 |
* plenary discussion of preparatory task (EL6) |
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10.00 |
* coffee |
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10.30: session 4 |
* demonstration-teaching and discussion of a contextualised lesson (EL6) |
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11.15: session 5 |
* presentation on documentation of Matsapha Lessons |
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11.45: session 6 |
* small group discussion on different contextualised lessons (AL1, AL5) |
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12.15 |
* lunch |
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13.15: session 7 |
* demonstration-teaching and discussion of an application lesson (ALII) |
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14.30 |
* tea |
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15.00: session 8 |
* demonstration-teaching and discussion of an investigation lesson (EL7) |
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16.15: session 9 |
* review of day and task allocation |
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Day Two: | |
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08.30: session 10 |
* overview of the day |
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08.45: session 11 |
* peer-teaching and discussion of contextualised lessons (EL1-EL3) |
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10.00 |
* coffee |
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10.30: session 12 |
* peer-teaching and discussion of contextualised lessons (EL4-EL9) |
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12.30 |
* lunch |
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13.30: session 13 |
* small group practice and discussion of an investigation lesson (EL10) |
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14.45 |
* tea |
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15.15: session 14 |
* small group practice and discussion of an application lesson (EL11) |
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16.30: session 15 |
* review of day and task allocation |
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Day Three: | |
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08.30: session 16 |
* overview of the day |
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08.45: session 17 |
* peer-teaching and discussion of contextualised lessons (AL2-AL4) |
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10.15 |
* coffee |
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10.45: session 18 |
* peer-teaching and discussion of contextualised lessons (AL6-AL10) |
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12.30 |
* lunch |
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13.30: session 19 |
* familiarisation with total pack of Matsapha Lessons; issues raised about their use in teaching |
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14.00: session 20 |
* brainstorming on teaching ideas on different science topics |
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14.45: |
* tea |
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15.15: session 21 |
* evaluation |
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16.15: session 22 |
* refund of travel expenses, arrangements for distributing workbooks and in-class support |
In preparation for the induction workshop during which a new cohort of teachers were to be introduced to the Matsapha materials, an extensive INSET-pack (Campbell et al., 1994c) was prepared for use by the INSET providers. This pack includes a pre-workshop homework exercise (see Box 5), a detailed programme (see Box 6) and background reading materials for the INSET providers.
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BOX 7 Session 11: Peer-teaching and discussion of contextualised lessons 08.45 - 10.00 a.m. (Day 2 of Induction workshop) | ||
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ACTIVITY |
OUTLINE |
KEY POINTS |
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Peer-teaching by three participants followed by plenary discussion. |
Participants offer short (15 minute) presentations of contextualised aspects of 3 lessons (EL1 - 3). Plenary discussion after each presentation considers the merits of the teaching approach. |
The unit provides several contextualised learning activities. Contextualised learning can be approached in several ways. |
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The main purpose of all the peer teaching sessions is that participants realise that they themselves are able to teach lessons with the suggested new approach. In the introduction to this session you may wish to take the following approach: * Review the guidelines for the peer teaching: - sessions of 10-15 minutes. * Ask a participant to be a time keeper allowing at most 15 minutes for a presentation, and at most 25 minutes for presentation plus discussion. * Make clear that after the peer-teaching the discussions will focus on expected problems or advantages of adopting the demonstrated approach (OHP6). During the discussions after the peer-teaching the following points need to be raised: * Many of the possible pitfalls in teaching and concept development are highlighted in the Teachers' Notes for each lesson. * Stress, where appropriate, how tempting it is for a teacher to pronounce prematurely if suggested explanations are scientifically correct or incorrect. * Similarly, indicate the cases where misconceptions have been or can be voiced during the introduction, and addressed and corrected at the end of the lesson. * Some of the following questions may be raised by participants or introduced, by the leader: - Is the introduction motivating? Materials provided: - OHP6 (Task Sheet 2: identify teaching and learning opportunities in Matsapha Lessons). Materials required: - Complete Teachers' Guide for the unit "Electricity". Workshop Leader's own notes: | ||
The INSET-pack further provides session-by-session guidance on the presentation method of small-group discussion and plenary follow-up of the pre-workshop task, introductory familiarisation with the structure and different aspects of the materials, demonstration teaching lessons, peer-teaching lessons (for an example see Box 7), hands-on practice of investigations and brain-storming activities for contexts for various other science topics. The pack also provides OHTs, participant hand-outs and an end-of-workshop evaluation instrument.
At a 3-day workshop in early February 1994, a group of 17 science teachers from 10 schools were introduced to the Matsapha materials by a Swazi science educator who had not been involved in the development of the materials and a teacher who had participated in the pilot phase.
Research instruments were developed and used to evaluate the induction strategy, including the format and content of the INSET-pack. Data were collected on teachers' and INSET providers' expectations and experiences through pre-workshop and post-workshop interviews, questionnaires and audio-taped teacher group discussions. Extensive field notes were collected during the induction workshop.
The printing of 1300 classroom student workbooks for each of the two units was arranged locally. These were later delivered to participating schools. All participants who implemented the new materials were supported in their classes at least once by the INSET providers during the period from February to June 1994. However, teaching schemes of the teachers participating in the induction workshop differed considerably. This resulted in problems with planning efficiently the in-class support by the INSET provider, and collecting classroom feed-back by the researchers.
Feed-back on the effectiveness of the INSET strategy has been collected through interviews with INSET providers and teachers, and the occasional observation of an INSET-provider supporting teachers in action. Science Educators in Lesotho, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia have provided peer critiques of the INSET-pack, illuminating the generalisibility of the proposed INSET strategy. In July 1994, the researchers completed the data collection on the impact on classroom practice by interviewing all participating teachers, establishing their 'concerns and anxieties' after using the materials. Diffusion of the teaching approach to other syllabus topics has been traced. Analysis of these data to relate specific characteristics of the INSET package and the readiness for change of the individual participating teachers has been completed during the subsequent 8 months.
In order to gauge the effects of the Matsapha materials on student learning, four questionnaires were constructed during March 1994. Three of these were designed to assess conceptual understanding and one to probe students' views on science learning activities. After piloting, the revised questionnaires were delivered by June 1994 to the 10 participating teachers covering 16 classes, equally split between those who used the Matsapha materials and those who used the standard SWISP materials. The main collection of written data took place between June 1994 and February 1995. A total of 600 students in 16 Form 2 classes have been involved. About half of these provided a complete set of questionnaire responses. Also during this time, 20 student interviews were scheduled.
After coding of responses, in April to June 1995, a comparative analysis for the experimental and comparison groups has been undertaken for the assessment of science understanding. Simultaneously, student preferences of various learning activities included in the Matsapha materials have been analysed.
