General
HAY, Margaret Jean & STICHTER, Sharon (eds.) (1995), African Women South of the Sahara, Longman Group. Essex.
The main purpose of the book is to explore the range of variations in women's social and political positions in sub-Saharan Africa, taking into account two important factors: firstly, the great variety of traditional social arrangements; secondly, how historical forces, for example, European colonial conquest in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and Arab/Islamic penetration have influenced the contemporary situation of women.
The material in the book is organized in such a way that it provides an overview on the women of sub-Saharan Africa. It is an introductory interdisciplinary text, written from a number of disciplines but set in a historical context.
The contributions by various writers are divided into three main topics, namely:
(i) African women in the economy
(ii) African women in society and culture
(iii) Women in politics and policy.
The first three chapters address the issue of African women in the economy by describing the activities in which women engage themselves in both in urban and rural areas. The activities are viewed in terms of production, distribution and reproduction. This section provides: first, a summary of the impact of pre-colonial socio-economic structures, colonial changes and post-colonial trends on contemporary women's work and welfare; second, a discussion of contemporary variations in women's rural economic roles and how they are attached to the world economy; thirdly, description of various occupations of urban women in various cities in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The next six chapters provide an investigation into the question of African women in society and culture. This section deals with various factors, such as the changing African family, inheritance law, religion and secular ideology, the arts, African literature, and voluntary associations. This has been done by describing the women's associations and complex roles within the extended structures in the African customary and kinship organizations as well as the situation in the modem world.
The third topic concerns African women both as active in politics and as objects of public policy. This includes issues relating to the political roles that women have taken in both indigenous and modem societies, their participation in national liberation movements in various countries in the Sub-Saharan region especially from the 1960s when most people in Africa were fighting for political independence, the impact of developmental policies on women, health, and contraception and technological issues. Structural adjustment programmes and their effect on women in the region under discussion have also been included. Illustrations from different countries have been used throughout the book in discussing women's social, economic, health and political issues.
ODAGA Odhiambo and HENEVELD, Ward, (1995) Girls and Schools in Sub-Saharan Africa: From Analysis to Action, World Bank Technical Paper No. 298, Africa Technical Department Series, World Bank, Washington D.C.
The central focus of this study is to formulate an operational gender perspective for reference in educational planning, programming, management, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation across Sub-Saharan Africa.
In an effort to achieve this objective, research findings in the last five (5) years on the constraints that girls experience in schools in this region have been summarized indicating the status of female education and factors that generally constrain girls' education. Under the section dealing with the status of female education, research findings on access, persistence, literacy and access to employment are summarized.
The findings on the factors that affect female education have been grouped into three, that is: socio-cultural and socio-economic factors; factors related to the school environment; and political and institutional factors. Under the first group, direct cost of schooling, opportunity cost of girls' education, attitude of parents/families on girls' education, initiations and religion are highlighted. With regard to the second group of constraints which concern school environment, the following factors have been outlined: distance to school, teachers' attitude, curricula and learning materials, sexual harassment, pregnancy, girls' expectations and motivation. In the third group, problems dealing with financing and management of education, the limited involvement of women in development initiatives, and political instability are summarized. The above factors have further been grouped into two as: demand-side and supply-side factors. The demand-side factors include the factors that limit the demand for female education, that is, socio-cultural and socio-political factors. The supply-side factors are viewed as those that reinforce gender inequalities by strengthening stereotypes about female roles and low academic expectations, that is, school related and political and institutional factors.
Key areas that require interventions and research have been noted. The study also offers suggestions and approaches that can be used to reduce the gender gap in access to education, attainment and achievement in the region. An overview of programs and projects that are already in the stage of implementation has been provided.
The importance of moving from analysis to action has also been given prominence. An approach for identifying and planning effective interventions has been offered. Set questions for assessing gender issues in education at the local and national levels have been provided. At the local level the questions are for assessing households, the school, the community, and participant groups, such as students and teachers. At the national level, questions are for assessing policy and macro-development planning.
BROWNE, A.W. & BARRETT, H.R. (1991) 'Female education in Sub-Saharan Africa: the Key to development ?', Comparative Education, 27 (3), p. 275-285.
Browne & Barrett bring together clearly the three themes of this Bibliography in their study of gender, education and development in sub-Saharan Africa. Since improvements in health, nutrition and education are not just ends in themselves but are the catalysts for development and since within the developing world sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest life-expectancy, the highest infant mortality rate and one of the highest levels of illiteracy (World Bank, 1990), the basis for long-term development in the region is undermined. The authors argue that education is "the key to the process of human-centred development", (p275) because of its effects both on health & nutrition & also the key to economic growth, and they present evidence to show that women's education has a pivotal role in all this.
As far as health is concerned, the authors establish a strong relationship between women's literacy and lower infant mortality rates in sub-Saharan Africa in general and in the Gambia in particular. Secondly, since the region is one of "female farming", it is suggested that "investment in woman's education would yield significant returns in food production and agricultural output, as well as improving nutrition for the household", (p281). Again, this is illustrated by the example of the Gambia where horticultural schemes have succeeded best when led by a literate woman.
It is pointed out that although education can be seen as intrinsic to both human and economic development, the goal of universal primary education is actually receding. The figures for girls' enrolment continue to be lower than those for boys and their drop-out rate higher. Trying to eradicate illiteracy later with adult literacy programmes is fraught with difficulties, not the least of which is choice of language. Illiteracy among women sets back the process of development still further "because of its particular importance as a generator of both human and economic advancement", (p 284).
The article contains a useful diagram (p. 277), illustrating the relationship between female education and developmental gains in health and agricultural production.
