South East Asia

Brunei
Cambodia
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Papua New Guinea
Phillipines
Singapore
Thailand
Vietnam
Annotations - Individual countries

Brunei

Gender and Education
YUSOF, Jamilah (1993)	An Investigation into Attitude of Secondary School Students in Brunei towards Mathematics by Gender and Grade Level.

BURMA (see MYANMAR)

Cambodia

Gender
LEDGERWOOD, Judy (1990)	Changing Khmer Conceptions of Gender: women, stories and the social order, UMI, Ann Arbour.

Gender and Education
FISKE, Edward B. (1995)	Using Both Hands: women and education in Cambodia, Asian Development Bank, Manila.

Indonesia

Gender
GERKE, Solvay (1992)	Social Change and Life Planning of Rural Javanese Women, Breitenbach, Saarbrucken.
HELLKIG, Tineke (1994)	Adjustment and Discontent: representation of women in the Dutch East Indies, Netherlandic Press, Windsor.
TOLLENAERE, Herman (1996)	The Politics of Divine Wisdom, Theosophy and Labour: national and women's movements in Indonesia and South Asia 1875-1947, Ratholieke Universiteit, Nijmegen.
PRABOWO (1982)	An Empirical Analysis of the Effects of Income and Education on Fertility in Indonesia, Council for Asian Manpower Studies, Quezon City.
WARNER, Lavinia and SANDILANDS, John (1982)	Women Beyond the Wire, Hamlyn, Feltham.
WIERINGAM Saskia (1995)	The Politicisation of Gender Relations in Indonesia: the Indonesian Women's Movement and Gerwani Until the New Order State, thesis, Amsterdam.
WOLF, Diane Lauren (1992)	Factory Daughters, Gender, Household Dynamics and Rural Industrialisation in Java, University of Calif. Press, Berekeley.

Gender and Education
ODEY-GARDINER, Mayling and SUPRAPTO, Riga-Adewoso (1996)	"Indonesia", in: MAK, Grace, C.L. (ED), Women, Education and Development in Asia: cross-national perspectives, Garland, New York and London, 95-118.

Laos

Gender
NATIONAL UNION OF LAO WOMEN (1989)	Status of Women: Laos, UNESCO, PROAP, Bangkok.
NGAOSYVATHN, Pheuiphanh (1993)	Lao Women: yesterday and today.
NGAOSYVATHN, Mayoury (1990)	On the Edge of the Pagoda: Lao women in Buddhism, York University, Toronto.
RAKOW, Meg (1990)	Women in Lao Morality Tales, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Manoa.

Malaysia

Gender
ARRIFIN. Jamilah (ed) (1994)	Reviewing Malaysian Women's Status: country report in preparation for the Fourth World Conference on Women, University of Malaya. Kuala Lumpur.
AFFRIN, Jamilah (1992)	Women and Development in Malaysia, Pelanduk Publications, Selangor.
AFFRIN, Jamilah (ed) (1994)	Reading on Women and Development in Malaysia, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
AFFRIN, Jamilah et al (ed) (1994)	Poverty Amidst Plenty: research findings and the gender dimension in Malaysia, Pelanduk.
BUANG, Amirah (1993)	"Development and Factory Women: negative perceptions from a Malaysian source area", in: MOMSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD, Vivian, Different Places, Different Voices: gender and development in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Routledge, London, 197-210.
CONSUMER ASSOCIATION OF PENANG (1982)	Abuse of Women in the Media, Consumers Association of Penang, Penang.
KING AL, Yun et al (1984)	Women in Malaysia, Pelanduk Publications, Selangor.
HONG, Evelyn (ed) (1983)	Malaysian Women: problems and issues, Consumers Association of Penang, Penang.
JAHARA, Yahaya (1991)	Women's Participation in Small Scale Ruminant Enterprise: a case study of three FELDA schemes in Negeri Sembilan, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
MANDERSON, Leonore (1980)	Women, Politics and Change: the Karim Ibu UMNO, Malaysia 1945-1972, OUP, Kuala Lumpur.
NG. Cecilia and YONG, Carol (1990)	Malaysian Women at the Crossroads, Change, International Reports, London.
RAJA ROHANA RAJA, Mahat (1991)	The Role and Status of Malay Women in Malaysia: social and legal perspectives, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur.
STIVENS, Maria et al (1949)	Malay Peasant Women and the Land, Zed Books, London.
STIVENS, Maria (1985)	Women and Development in South East Asia II: sexual politics in Remban, female autonomy, matriliny and agrarian change in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, University of Kent, Canterbury.
STRANGE, Heather (1981)	Rural Malay Women in Tradition and Transition, Praeger, New York
YOO SANG, Nge et al (1992)	Status and Role of Malaysian Women in Development: a bibliographical essay, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.

Gender and Education
BRIEN, Michael J. and LILLARD, Lee A (1994)	"Education, Marriage and First Conception in Malaysia" in Journal of Human Resources, 29 (4), 1167-1204.
BRIEN, Michael J. (1995)	Education, Marriage and First Conception in Malaysia, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, California.
LEE, Molly N.N. (1995)	Women in Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang.
NAWAWI, H.B.T.M. (1991)	"Participatory Adult Education for Rural Women: a perspective", in: Adult Education and Development, 36, 93-101.
PONG, Suet-ling (1993)	"Preferential Policy and Secondary School Attainment in Peninsular Malaysia" in Sociology of Education, 66 (4), 245-261.
SIDIN, Robiah (1996)	"Malaysia", in MAK, Grace C.L. (ed), Women, Education and Development in Asia: cross-national perspectives, Garland, New York and London, 119-142.
RUDIE, Ingrid (1994)	Visible Women in East Coast Malay Society: on the reproduction of gender in ceremonial, school and market, Scandinavian University Press, Oslo.
UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA (1983)	Study on Access of Women to Science Education and Training and Associated Careers in Malaysia, UNESCO, Paris.

Myanmar

Gender
ASIA WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHT PROJECT (1993)	A Modern Form of Slavery: trafficking of Burmese women and girls into brothels in Thailand, Human Rights Watch, New York.
MI MI KHAING, Daw (1984)	The World of Burmese Women, Zed Books, London.
THEIN, Mya M (1980)	"Women Scientists and Engineers in Burma", in Impact, XXX (1), 15-22.

Papua New Guinea

Gender
INGLIS, Amirah (1975)	The White Women's Protection Ordinance: sexual anxiety and politics in Papua, Chatto and Windus, London.
LUTKEHAUS, Nancy and ROSCOE, Paul (1995)	Gender Rituals: female initiation in Melanesia, Routledge, New York.
SCHOEFFEL, Penelope (1983)	Women's Associations in the Rural Economy of the South Pacific: case studies from Western Samoa and East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia.
SEDDON, Sally Bruce (1983)	Economic Activities of Women in the Oksapmin Subdistrict, West Sepik Province, University of Papua New Guinea, Papua New Guinea.
TURNER, Anne (1993)	Views from Interviews: the changing role of women in Papua New Guinea, OUP, Melbourne.
WEINER, Annette B. (1976)	Women of Value, Men of Renown: new perspectives in Trobriand exchange, University of Texas Press, Austin,

Gender and Education
GIBSON, Margaret A. (1990)	"Equity for the Nation's Smallest Schools" in Papua New Guinea Journal of Education, 26 (1).
GIBSON, Margaret A. (1993)	Equity for Female Teachers: a national survey of employment, training and promotional opportunities for community school teachers in Papua New Guinea, National Research Institute, Borokko.
JOHNSON, Patricia Lyons (1992)	Education and Gender Inequality in Papua New Guinea, Michigan State University, East Lansing.
STILL, Kathy and SHEA, John (1976)	Something's Got To Be Done So We Can Survive In This Place: the problems with women students at the University of Papua New Guinea, UPNG, Port Moresby.
UNESCO (1987)	Universal Primary Education for Girls: Papua New Guinea, PROAP, Bangkok.
WORMALD, Eileen and CROSSLEY, Anne (1988)	Women and Education in Papua New Guinea and the South Pacific, University of Papua New Press, Wigani.

Phillipines

Gender
LAZO, Lucita (ed) (1992)	Homeworkers of South East Asia: the struggle for social protection in the Phillipines, PROAP, ILO, Bangkok.
RESURRECCION-SAYO, Bernadette (1994)	Farmers, Loggers on Fragile Land: changing gender relations in a Phillipine mountain village, Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, working paper series 170.

Singapore

Gender
HASSAN, Riaz (1980)	Ethnicity, Culture and Fertility Behaviour: an exploratory study of fertility behaviour and sexual beliefs, Copmen Publishers, Singapore.
LAM LIN, Jenny et al (eds) (1993)	Voices and Choices: women's movement in Singapore, Singapore Council of Women's Organisations, Singapore.
LIM, Linda	Women in the Singapore Economy, Copmen Publishers, Singapore.
MANDERSON, Lenore (ed) (1983)	Women's Work and Women's Roles: economics and everyday life in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore, Australian National University, Canberra.
SINGAPORE ASSOCIATION OF WOMEN LAWYERS (1986)	Legal Status of Singapore Women, Asiapac, Singapore.
WHITE, R.O. and ORR, Robert (1978)	Rural Asian Women: status and environment, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore.
WONG, Aline K. (1980)	Economic Development and Women's Place: women in Singapore, Change International Reports, London.

Gender and Education
CHIEW, Seen Kong (1977)	Educational and Occupational Attainment of Singapore's Chinese Women and Men, Chopmen Enterprises, Singapore.
GUAT TIN LOW (1996)	"Singapore", in MAK, Grace, C.L. (ed), Women, Education and Development in Asia: cross-national perspectives, Garland, New York and London, 143-161.
KONG, Lily et al (1994)	Convent Chronicles: a history of a pioneer mission school for girls in Singapore, Armour Publishing, Singapore.

Thailand

Gender
ASIA WATCH AND WOMEN'S RIGHT PROJECT (1993)	A Modern Form of Slavery: trafficking of Burmese women and girls into brothels in Thailand, Human Rights Watch, New York.
HOGAN, Dennis P. et al (1987)	Cultural and Economic Factors in the Fertility of Thai Women, East-West Center, Honolulu.
KHIN, Thitsa (1990)	Providence and Prostitution: image and reality for women in Buddhist Thailand, Change International Reports, London.
LAZO, Lucita (ed) (1992)	Homeworkers of Southeast Asia: the struggle for social protection in Thailand, International Labour Organisations, UNESCO, PROAP, Bangkok.
MUNTARBHORN, Vitit (1985)	Women's Development in Thailand, Thailand National Commission on Women's Affairs, Bangkok.
MUNTARBHORN, Vitit et al (1990)	Status of Women: Thailand, UNESCO, PROAP, Bangkok.
PONGSAPICH, Amara (1988)	Occasional Papers on Women in Thailand, Chulalongkorn University Social Research Institute, Bangkok.
VAN ESTERIK, Penny (1989)	Deconstructing display, gender and development in Thailand, York University, Toronto, working paper No. 2.
VAN ESTERIK, Penny (1989)	Ideologies and Women in Development Strategies in Thailand, York University, Toronto, working paper No. 2.
YODDUMNERN-ATTIG, Bencha et al (1992)	Changing Roles and Statuses of Women in Thailand: a documentary assessment, Mahidol University, Nakhonpathom.

Gender and Education
FENSHAM, Peter et al (1989)	"The Superior Achievement of Girls in Chemistry and Physics in Upper Secondary Schools in Thailand" in Research in Science and Technological Education, 7 (1), 5-14.
FENSHAM, Peter et al (1989)	"Successful Achievement by Girls in Physics Learning" in International Journal of Science Education, 11/(.) 101-112.
PREEYANUCH, L. (1979)	Adult Education Programmes for Women in Rural Thailand, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Hull.
SUCHART, Prasithrathsin (1981)	Fertility Threshold Values of Income and Education in Thailand, University of the Phillipines, Quezon City.
UNESCO (1982)	Education for Disadvantaged Women, PROAP, Bangkok.

Vietnam

Gender
EISEN, Arlene (1984)	Women and Revolution in Vietnam, Zed Books.
VIETNAMESE WOMEN'S UNION AND CENTRE FOR WOMEN'S STUDIES (ed) (1989)	Vietnamese Women in the Eighties, Foreign Language Publishing House, Hanoi.

Annotations - Individual countries

Indonesia
Malaysia

Indonesia

ODEY-GARDINER, May ling and SUPRAPTO, Riga Adiwoso (1996), Indonesia, in:

MAK, Grace C.L. (ed), Women, Education and Development in Asia: Cross-National Perspectives, Garland Publishing, New York and London, 95-118.

Indonesia is, in demographic terms, one of the largest countries in the world. Geographically it is incredibly fragmented, comprising over 1000 islands and at least 300 distinct ethnic groups. Gender is another aspect of disparity, females not having the same access as men to education, employment and social standing.

This chapter first provides a sustained gender-based analysis of Indonesian education. Quantitative and qualitative data are provided with the problems laying clearly in the area of the latter. Not surprisingly, dislocated communications and the insularity of many of the smaller national components lead to deepened disparities. Such contexts tend to overcome a long standing policy of equal access to education, traditional roles for the majority of females result in interrupted attendance and lower attainments than their male counterparts

In general however, recent improvements in educational participation and qualifications have led to credentials outstripping employment opportunities in the modem sector. So unemployment of the educated tends to be more prevalent in urban than in rural areas and affects both sexes A tendency to remain even longer in education prolongs the problem. As female superiority of attainment runs right through to the highest levels, the benefits of higher education for women are higher than for men. In Indonesia there is little cultural constraint against women working outside of the household, However, financial rewards for comparable occupations are not equal, and favour males.

Positive development trends in education and the economy have led to the phenomenon of 'open unemployment', and more among women than men. It is possible, though, that the currently booming economic growth of the country may provide sufficient private sector jobs to satisfy the highly educated of both sexes. It is clear that strong policies of human resource development across the whole population of Indonesia, but especially in the major cities, is one of the pillars of economic growth in Indonesia. This has relied on liberal general education supporting diverse skills but it is thought that future growth needs to be reflected more to science and technology. This could disadvantage females depending on whether or not traditional choices prevail as between subjects to be studied and skills acquired.

Malaysia

BRIEN, Michael J. and LILLIARD, Lee A. (1994), Education, Marriage, and First Conception in Malaysia, Journal of Human Resources, XXIX (4), 1167-1204.

This paper examines cohort and ethnic differences in education, the timing of marriage, and the timing of first conception for women in Peninsular Malaysia. The authors examine the roles of education and enrolment in delaying marriage and first conception, and dropping out of school. The focus is on the joint nature of these decisions by controlling the endogeneity of one outcome as it affects the others. Changes in education and enrolment account for a substantial position of the cohort trend towards later age of marriage in this part of Malaysia. Further, most of the rise in the age of first conception across cohorts and ethnic groups is fully accounted for by cohort and ethnic differences in the age of marriage.

All this is set against a picture of rising educational attainment for both sexes and the evidence of a wider spread of curricular interests and therefore employment opportunities among females. However the authors merely ask whether either educational development or economic development, or both have a causal connection with the marriage and conception trends recorded? Substantial amounts of data are provided and various statistical models employed.

After this detailed descriptive analysis they are prompted to select a number of questions as being of first order significance: is endogeneity important? what about the age at marriage? what is the role of marital status? The fix on the last one is significant in that in Malaysia, marital status is critical to understanding the timing of first conception because there is very little childbearing outside of marriage. They conclude with the following summary: "We find that marital status is a very significant predictor of the decision to continue in school, but that its importance is reduced by the rarity of marriage before leaving school. A number of other explanatory factors are found to influence continuing in school, including educational policies, family background characteristics, and the availability of schools of the appropriate level." Availability is an important issue in spatial terms and in respect of female take up. The usual structure of urban advantage over rural is present in Malaysia and clearly enhances the prospects of women continuing in education, especially as further and higher education opportunities tend to be in towns and cities anyway.

SIDIN, Robiah (1996), Malaysia, in MAK, Grace C.L. (ed). Women, Education and Development in Asia: Cross-National Perspectives, Garland Publishing, New York and London, 119-141.

Education is perceived as having contributed significantly to the recent and rapid development of Malaysia economically, as well as having a primary function in socializing children into accepted community values and behaviour. It is clear that women have played a full part in this development, across a wide range of sectors and this has been happening not only because of labour demand, but also due to governmental efforts to incorporate women effectively in the process. This chapter details the different types of educational opportunities open to women on an equal basis to men as well as their participation in the economic, social and political dimensions of Malaysian life.

An historical account of the development of the profile of female education is provided, showing phases of increased participation in response to different factors such as mission activity and military conflict. The achievement of independence provided a major opportunity, and by 1970 the enrolment rate for girls at primary level was 85 per cent, while at secondary level 44 per cent for lower and 16 per cent for upper. Given the macro multi ethnic picture there is obviously some variation as between the major components. There is also some disparity even today as between urban and rural areas of the country, but most boys and girls are attending school at least up to the age of 15. After that various forms of selection begin to play a significant part in the appearance of greater gender differentiation. In particular the participation of girls in vocational and technical education is still low, providing only about 25 per cent of the total enrolment in this sector, and being concentrated in traditional 'female' programmes. However, there are signs of a change of attitude on a small scale. At tertiary level the representation of women in most subject areas is strong. The article provides data to illustrate the situation in all sectors of education and employment.

Over the last decade, the proportion of the labour force that is female has risen, while that of males has correspondingly fallen. Nonetheless, women are both vertically and horizontally, clustering in manual and clerical jobs, though at the professional levels, where high achieving females are breaking through, there is evidence of increased appointments in medicine, dentistry, accounting law and university teaching. Women are increasingly active and effective in social development fields as their self-concept and self development profiles have strengthened. Such confidence building experiences have also projected increased numbers of women into Malaysian politics at various levels.

So the major problems facing Malaysian women are now those arising from having to combine occupational and domestic responsibilities. Constraints on their geographical mobility lead to tensions in both professional and skilled manual sectors. The author concludes that the issues that most need to be addressed concern the workplace, conflict between women's traditional and modem roles, and leadership.