|
General | |
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Gender | |
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AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF RETIRED PERSONS (1989) |
Mid-life and Older Women in Latin America and the Caribbean, PAHO, Washington DC |
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BOURQUE, S (1989) |
Gender and the State: Perspectives From Latin America, in: CHARLTON, S. EVERETT, AND STAUDT, K (eds) Women, the State and Development, State University of New York, Albany. |
|
CARR, Shirley et al (1993) |
Special Issue: Women's Participation in Trade Unions, in: Labour Education, 90, 4-56. |
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CHANEY, Elsa M (1979) |
Supermadre: Women in Politics in Latin America, Austin: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Texa Press. |
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CHANEY, Elsa M (1984) |
Women of the World: Latin America and the Caribbean, IDCA, Washington DC. |
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CHINCHILLA, N (1979) |
Working-Class Feminism: Domitila and the Housewives Committee, in: Latin American Perspectives, 6, 3. 87-92. |
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ECLA, (1983) |
Report of the Group of Experts on Operational Strategies for the Advancement of Women up to the Year 2000, Santiago, Chile |
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ECLA, (1983) |
Report of the Regional Conference on the Integration of Women into the Economic and Social Development of Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile |
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ECLA, (1983) |
Latin America: Analysis of the Social Problems Affecting Women in Various Sectors, Santiago, Chile |
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ECLA, (1983) |
The Legal Situation of Latin American and the Caribbean Women as Defined According to the Resolutions and Mandates of the United Nations System. Volume I: Basis, Proposals, Methodology, and the Legal Situation of Women, Santiago, Chile. |
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ECLA, (1984) |
Five Studies on the Situation of Women in Latin America, Santiago. Chile |
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ECLA, (1984) |
Contribution to the appraisal of the United Nations Decade for Women and to the Design of Strategies for the Future, Santiago, Chile |
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ECLA, (1984) |
Report of the Regional Meeting For Latin America and the Caribbean in Preparation for the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality Development and Peace, Santiago. Chile |
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ECLA, (1984) |
Selected Publications Prepared by ECLA during the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Santiago, Chile |
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ECLA, (1984) |
The Rural Woman in Latin America: A Social Actor in the Past Decade (1975-1984), Santiago, Chile. |
|
EDWARDS, Beatrice (1989) |
Women, Work and Democracy in Latin America, in: Convergence 27, 2/3, 51-57 |
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GOODENOW, Carol ESPIN, Olivia M (1983) |
Identity Choices in Immigrant Adolescent Females, in: Adolescence, 28, 109, 173-184. |
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HENSMAN, Robin (1989) |
The role of Women in the Resistance to Political Authoritarianism in Latin America and Asia, in: AFSHAR, HALEH (ed), Women and Politics in the Third World, Routledge, London. 48-72 |
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INTER-AMERICAN FOUNDATION (1974) |
The Female Role in Development in Latin America: a Partially Annotated Bibliography of Recent Publications in the Social Science, Rosslyn, Virginia. |
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JAQUETTE, J (1980) |
Female Political Participation in Latin America, I: NASH, J and SAFA. H (eds) Sex and Class in Latin America, Bergin Publishers, New York |
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JAQUETTE, J. (1989) |
The Women's Movement in Latin America, Boston: Unwin Hyman. |
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JELIN, Elizabeth (ed) (1990) |
Women and Social Change in Latin America, UNRISD/Zed Books. |
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JELIN, Elizabeth (ed) (1991) |
Family, Household and Gender Relations in Latin America, UNESCO/Kegan Paul |
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KNASTER, M (1977) |
Women in Spanish America: An Annotated Bibliography from the Pre Conquest to Contemporary Times, G.K. Hall, Boston. |
|
MOMSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD, Vivian (1993) |
Different Places, Different Voices: Gender and Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London (Part V: Latin America 227-287) |
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PESCATELLO, A (ed) (1973) |
Female and Male in Latin America,: University of Pittsburgh Press. London and Pittsburgh |
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RADCLIFFE, Sarah A WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) (1993) |
"Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London, |
|
RAMOS-PALOMO, M:D et al, (1994) |
Femenino Plural: Palabra y Memoria de Mujeres, Universidad de Málaga, Spain |
|
ROWE, Leslie (1981) |
International Women Students: Perspectives for the 80s, Report of SJOBERG, Steve (eds) the International Women Students Conference, Boston, Mass. |
|
ROZSAVOLQUI, Paula de (1976) |
Role of Women in Latin America, in: Literacy Discussion, 6,4, 103-118 |
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SAFA, H.I (1990) |
Women's Social Movements in Latin America, in: Gender and Society, 4, 3. |
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SCHIRMER, J.G (1989) |
Those who die for life cannot be called dead: Women and Human Rights Protests in Latin America, in: Feminist Review, 32, 3-29. |
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SCHMIDT, S (1976) |
Political Participation and Development: the Role of Women in Latin America, in: Journal of International Affaires, 30,257-270. |
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SCHMUKLER, Beatrice (1992) |
Women and the Microsocial Democratisation of Everyday Life, in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London 251-276. |
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SLATER, D. (1985) |
New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, Amsterdam, CEDLA. |
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STEPAN, Nancy Leys (1991) |
The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender and Education in Latin America, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London. |
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STEVENS, E.P. (1973) |
Marianismo: the Other Face of Machismo in Latin America, in A. PESCATELLO (ed) Female and Male in Latin America, London and Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. |
|
ULSHOEFER, Petra (1985) |
Central America and the Dominican Republic: Trade Union Training for Women Workers: Some Encouraging Years, in: Labour Education, 61, 18-19. |
|
UNESCO, (1994) |
Women and Culture in Latin America, in: Culture Plus, 14. |
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VASQUEZ, Josefina Z (1985) |
Women's Liberation in Latin America: Towards a History of the Present, in: UNESCO, Women from Witch Hunt to Politics, Paris, 89-108 |
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WESTWOOD, Sallie RADCLIFFE, Sarah A (1993) |
Gender, Racism and the Politics of Identities in Latin America, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London. 1-29. |
|
WILKINSON, Jean (1989) |
Unheard Words: Third World Women Speak for Themselves, in: Social Studies Review, 29, 1, 71-76 |
|
WORONIUK, Beth (1995) |
Women in the Americas: Bridging the Gender Gap, IDB, Washington DC |
|
YUDELMAN, Sally (1994) |
Women Farmers in Central America: Myths, Roles Reality, in: Grassroots Development, 17, 2, 2-13. |
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ZABALETA, M. (1986) |
Research on Latin American Women: In Search of Our Independence, in: Bulletin of Latin American Research, 5,2,97-103. |
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Gender and Education | |
|
ALMERAS, D (1994) |
Women's Formal Education: Achievements and Obstacles, in: CEPAL Review, 54,61 -79 |
|
ARPESLAGH, Robert (1991) |
World Without Writing and Them.....they Write for the First Time, VAN DEN BERG, Joanne Netherlands Institute of International Relations (includes several Latin American components). |
|
BRASLAVSKY, Cecilia (1984) |
Mujer y Educación: Desigualdades Educativas en América Latina y el Caribe, UNESCO. Santiago Chile |
|
CASTRO MARTIN, Teresa (1994) |
Women's Education and Fertility in Latin America: Explaining the Significance of Education for Women's Lives, Macro. International Calverton. |
|
CATANZARITE, L. (1992) |
Gender, Education and Employment in Central America: Whose Work Counts? in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 67-86 |
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CEBOTAREV, Eleonora A (1980) |
A Non-Oppressive Framework for Adult Education Programmes for Rural Women in Latin America, in: Convergence, 13, 1/2, 34-49. |
|
CONWAY, Jill (1993) |
The Politics of Women's Education: Perspectives from Asia, Africa and Latin America, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor |
|
CORVALÁN, Graziella (1990) |
Mujer y Educación en América Latina, REDUC, Santiago, Chile |
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GERMAN ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1994). |
Adult Education and Development. Bonn. (includes sections on, Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua and Latin America in general.) |
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RIVERO, José (1990) |
Latin America And The Caribbean: A Major Project for Literacy, IBE, Geneva. |
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SCHIEFELBEIN, Ernesto PERUZZI, Sonia (1990) |
Education Opportunities for Women: the Case of Latin America and the Caribbean, in: The Major Project Bulletin, 24, 49-76. |
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TURNER, Susana (1990) |
The Literacy Issue: Feminist Perspectives on Reading and Writing, in: Voices Rising, 4, 1, Jan-Feb. |
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UNESCO/UNIFEM (1992) |
Manual de Recomendaciones para la Eliminación de Estereotipos en los Textos Escolares y en los Materiales Educatívos en General, Oficina Sub-Regional para Centroamérica, Guatemala. |
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Honduras
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Peru
Puerto Rico
Venezuela
|
Gender | |
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DE-LISI, Richard GALLAGER, Ann (1991) |
Understanding of Gender Stability and Constancy in Argentinean Children, in: Merril-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 3,483-502. |
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MILLER, Karen (1984) |
The Effects of Industrialization on Men's Attitudes Towards the Extended Family and Women's Right: A Cross-National Study, in: Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 1,153-160 (includes Chile) |
|
Gender and Education | |
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BONDER, G (1992) |
Altering Sexual Sterotypes Through Teacher Training (Argentina), in: STROMQUIST, N. (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 229-250. |
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BRASLAVSKY, C (1992) |
Educational Legitimation of Women's Economic Subordination in Argentina, in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge. Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 47-66. |
|
Gender | |
|
BENTON, Jane 1993) |
The Role of Women's Organisations and Groups in Community Development: A Case Study of Bolivia, in: MOMSEN. Janet and KINNAIRD, Vivian (eds) Different Places, Different Voices: Gender Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London, 230-242. |
|
COOK, Katsi (1993) |
Seeking the Balance: A Native Women's Dialogue. Panel Presentation at the State of Indian American Conference, in: Akwe: kon Journal, 10, 2, 16-29. (includes Nicaragua). |
|
SAGE, C (1993) |
Deconstructing the Household: Women's Role under Community Relations in Highland Bolivia, in: MOMSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD Vivian, (eds) Different Places, Different Voices: Gender Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London, 243-255 |
|
Gender and Education | |
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HEALY, K (1991) |
Animating Grassroots Development: Womens's Popular Education in Bolivia, in: Grassroots Development, 15, 26-34 |
|
Gender | |
|
ALVAREZ, S (1990) |
Engendering Democracy in Brazil. Princeton University Press, Princeton |
|
ALVAREZ, S (1989) |
Women's movements and Gender Politics in the Brazilian Transition, in: J. JAQUETTE (ed) The Women's Movement in Latin America, Boston: Unwin Hyman. |
|
CORCORAN-NANTES, Y (1988) |
Women in Grassroots Protest Politic in Sao Paulo, Brazil, PhD Thesis, University of Liverpool |
|
CORCORAN-NANTES, Y (1993) |
Female Consciousness or Feminist Consciousness Raising in Community Based Struggles in Brazil, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London, 136-155. |
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FONCECA, Claudia (1991) |
Spouses, Siblings and Sex-Linked Bonding: A Look at Kinship Organisation in a Brazilian Slum in: JELIN, Elizabeth (ed), Family Household and Gender Relations in Latin America, UNESCO, Kegan Paul, 133-160. |
|
SARTI, C. (1989) |
The Panorama of Feminism in Brazil, in: New Left Review, 173,75-92. |
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SCHMINK, M (1981) |
Women in Brazilian Abertura Politics, in: Signs, 7, 11, 115-134 |
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SPINK, M.P. (1982) |
Experiences of First Pregnancy and the Use of Antenatal Services in Sao Paulo, Brazil, PhD Thesis, London School, of Economics University of London. |
|
VIEIRA-MACHADO, Leda María (1993) |
"We Learned to Think Politically": The Influence of the Catholic Church and the Feminist Movement on the Emergence of the Health Movement of the Jardim Nordeste Area in Sao Paulo, Brazil, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London., 88-111. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
GERMAN ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1994) |
Adult Education and Development. Bonn. (includes sections on Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua and Latin America in General.) |
|
ROSEMBURG, F (1992) |
Education Democratisation and Inequality in Brazil in: STROMQUIST, N. Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 33-46. |
|
STROMQUIST, Nelly P. (1997) |
Literacy for Citizenship: Gender and Grassroots Dynamics in Brazil, SUNY Press, Albany. |
|
VIVEROS, E. (1992) |
Vocational Training and Job Opportunities for Women in the North of Brazil, in: STROMQUIST, N . (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 195-228 |
|
Gender | |
|
BARBIERI, M Teresita de (1972) |
Acceso de la Mujer a las Carreras y Ocupaciones Tecnológicas de Nivel Medio, UNESCO, Santiago, Chile. |
|
BOYLE, Catherine M (1993) |
Touching the Air: The Cultural Force of Women in Chile, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London.), 156-172. |
|
CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS DE LA MUJER, (1988) |
Mundo de la Mujer: Continuidad y Cambio, Santiago, Chile. |
|
DINIVITZER, B.D (1981) |
Transformation of the Female Labour Force in the Context of Peripherial Capitalism, PhD Thesis, London, School of Economics University of London. |
|
KIRKWOOD, Julieta (1983) |
Women and Politics in Chile, in: International Social Science Journal, 35, 4, 625-637. |
|
MILLER, Karen (1984) |
The Effects of Industrialisation on Men's Attitudes Towards the Extended Family and Women's Right: A Cross-National Study, in: Journal of Marriage and the Family, 46, 1,153-160 (Argentina and Chile) |
|
Gender and Education |
|
|
SCHIEFELBEIN, E FARREL, J.P. (1980) |
Women, Schooling and Work in Chile: Evidence from a Longitudinal Study, in: Comparative Education Review, 24, 2, 160-179. |
|
UNESCO, (1975) |
Women, Education, Equality: a Decade of Experiment (Burkina Faso, Chile and Nepal) |
|
VALDES, X. (1992) |
The Women's Rural School: An Empowering Educational Experience, STROMQUIST, N . (ed) Women and Education in Latin America, Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 277-302. |
|
YEAGER, G.M (1983) |
Women's role in Nineteenth Century Chile: Public Education Records, 1843-1883, in: Latin America Research Review, 18, 3, 149-156. |
|
Gender | |
|
COHEN, L.M. (1973) |
Women Entry into the Professions in Colombia: Selected Characteristic, in: Journal of Marriage and Family, 35,322-330- |
|
DONALDSON, Jaime (1992) |
Finding Common Ground: Redefining Women's Work in Colombia, in: Grassroots Development, 16, 1,2-11. |
|
MEERTENS, Danny (1993) |
Women's Role in Colonisation: A Colombian Case Study in: MOMSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD Vivian, (eds) Different Places, Different Places, Differents Voices: Gende Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London, 256-369. |
|
TOWNSEND, Janet (1993) |
Housewifisation and Colonisation in the Colombian Rainforest, in MONSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD, Vivian, (eds) Different Places, Different Voices: Gender Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London, 270-278 |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
ACUÑA de MORENO, Julia (1989) |
Albores de la Educación Femenina en la Nueva Granada, Colegio Departamental de la Merced, Bogota. |
|
GERMAN ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1994) |
Adult Education and Development. Bonn. (includes Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua and Latin America in general.) |
|
Gender | |
|
CAMACHO GRANADOS, R et al (1996) |
Las Cuotas Mínimas de Participación de las Mujeres: Un Mecanismo de Acción Afirmativa. Aportes para la, Discusión Centro Nacional Para el Desarrollo de la Mujer y la Familia. Costa Rica. |
|
GOMÁRIS, Enrique (1994) |
La Planificación con Perspectiva de Género Centro Nacional para el Desarrollo de la Mujer y de la Familia, Costa Rica. |
|
MENDIOLA, H (1992) |
Gender Inequalities and the Expansion of Higher Education in Costa Rica, in: STROMQUIST, N. (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 125-146. |
|
Gender | |
|
COLE, Johnetta, (1986) |
Women in Cuba: Old Problems and New Ideas, in: REED, Gail Urban Anthropology, 15, 3-4, 321-351 |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
FRANCO, Zolia (1975) |
Women in the Transformation of the Cuban Education, in: Prospects V, 3, 387-390. |
|
MAC CALL, C (1987) |
Women and Literacy: the Cuban Experience, in: Journal of Reading, 30, 318-324. |
|
Gender | |
|
ULSHOEFER, Petra (1985) |
Central America and the Dominican Republic: Trade Union Training for Women Workers: Some Encouraging Years, in: Labour Education, 61, 18-19. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
JACOBSEN, Edward (1985) |
Reducing Differences of Mathematical Expectations Between Boys and Girls, in: Studies in Mathematical Education, 4, 47-57. |
|
Gender | |
|
MOSER, Caroline O.N, (1993) |
Adjustment From Below: Low-Income Women, Time and The Triple Role in Guayaquil, Ecuador, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London, 173-196 |
|
ROZSAVOLGYI, Paula (1976) |
The Role of Women in Latin America, in Literacy Discussion, 6,4, 103-118. (includes functional Literacy Programmes in Ecuador). |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
PRESTON, R (1985) |
Gender, Ideology and Education: Implication at the Ecuadorian Peryphery, in: Compare, 15, 1, 20-40. |
|
Gender | |
|
SCHIRMER, JENNIFER (1993) |
The Seeking of Truth and the Gendering of Consciousness: The Comadres of El Salvador and the Conavigua Widows of Guatemala. in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London. 30-64. |
|
Gender | |
|
FRANKEL, A. (1990) |
Weeping Widows no Longer: Women Organise in Guatemala, in: Central America Report, Winter: 6-7. |
|
SCHIRMER, Jennifer (1993) |
The Seeking of Truth and the Gendering of Consciousness: The Comadres of El Salvador and the Conavigua Widows of Guatemala. in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London, 30-64. |
|
GIBBONS, Judith et al (1991) |
Women's Worldly Fate: Guatemalan, Filipino and USA Adolescents Images of Women as Office Workers and Home Makers, Paper presented in the Interamerican Congress of Psychology, San Jose, Costa Rica |
|
GREENBERG, Linda (1992) |
Midwife Training Programs in Highland Guatemala. in: Social Science Media. 16, 18, 1599-1609 |
|
MENCHU, Rigoberta (1995) |
We have Come a Long Way, in UNESCO Courier, September 1995, 25. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
OOIJENS, J.L.P. et al (1990) |
Alfabetización y Mujeres: la Experiencia del Proyecto IHDER/ANACH, Editorial Guaymuras, Tegucigalpa/CESO La Haya. |
|
Gender | |
|
CHANI, Sylvia (1984) |
Las Olvidadas: A Study of Women, Housing and Family Structure in Querétaro, PhD Thesis, University of London. |
|
CRASKE, Nikki (1993) |
Women's Political Participation in Colonias Populares in Guadalajara, Mexico, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London. |
|
GALEANA, Paricia (ed) (1994) |
La Mujer del Mexico de la Transición: Memoria de un Simposio, Universidad Nacional de Mexico, Mexico D:F. |
|
MAHIEU, Jose A (1985) |
Feminine type and Stereotypes in Mexican and Latin America Cinema in: UNESCO, Women from Witch-Hunt to Politics, Paris |
|
OLIVEIRA, Orlandina de (1991) |
Migration of Women, Family Organization and Labour Markets in Mexico in: JELIN, Elizabeth (ed). Family Household and Gender Relations in Latin America, UNESCO, Kegan Paul, 101-118. |
|
STEPHEN, L (1989) |
Popular Feminism in Mexico: Women in the Urban Popular Movement, in: Zeta Magazine, December. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
CORTINA, R (1989) |
Women as Leaders in Mexican Education, in: Comparative Education Review, 33.357-376. |
|
CORTINA, R (1992) |
Gender and Power in the Teachers Union of Mexico, in: STROMQUIST, N. (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London |
|
GONZALBO AIZPURU, Pilar, (1987) |
Las Mujeres en la Nueva España: Educación y Vida Cotidiana, Colegio de Mexico, Mexico D.C. |
|
VAUGHAN, M..K (1977) |
Women, Class and Education in Mexico, 1880-1928, in: Latin America Perspectives, 4, 135-152. |
|
Gender | |
|
COOK, Katsi (1993) |
Seeking the Balance: A Native Women's Dialogue. Panel Presentation at the State of Indian American Conference, Akwe: kon Journal, 10, 2, 16-29. (Includes Bolivia and Nicaragua). |
|
MOLYNEUX, M (1985) |
Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, State and Revolution in Nicaragua, in: D. SLATER (ed) New Social Movements and the State in Latin America, Amsterdam: CEDLA. |
|
PUAR, Jasbir. K (1996) |
Nicaraguan Women Resistance, and the Politics of Aid, in: AFSHAR, Haleh (ed) Women and Politics in the Third World, Routledge, London, 73-92. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
GERMAN ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1994) |
Adult Education and Development. Bonn. (includes sections on Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua and Latin America in general.) |
|
VEENHOFF, A (ed) (1992) |
Education For Women's Development, in: Netherlands Vena Journal, Special Issue, 4, 1 (includes Nicaragua) |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
PEREZ-VENERO, M..M (1973) |
The Education Of Women on the Isthmus of Panama, in: Journal of the West, 12, 325-334. |
|
Gender | |
|
ANDREAS, C (1985) |
When Women Rebel: the Rise of Popular Feminism in Peru, Lawrence Hill and Company, Westport. |
|
BOURQUE, S and WARREN, K (1981) |
Women of the Andes: Patriarchy and Social Change in Two Peruvian Towns, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press |
|
GRAVES, Thomas (1986) |
The Women's Voice in the Andean Labour Union, in: Urban Anthropology, 15, 3-4, 355-376. |
|
PRIETO, J (1980) |
Mujer, Poder, y Desarrollo en el Perú, Edición Dorhca, Lima |
|
RADCLIFFE, Sarah (1993) |
The Role of Gender in Peasant Migration: Conceptual Issue From Peruvian Andes, in: MOMSEN, Janet and KINNAIRD Vivian, (eds) Different Places, Different Voices: Gender Development in Africa, Asia and Latin America, Routledge, London |
|
RADCLIFFE, Sarah (1990) |
Multiple Identities and Negotition over Gender: Female Peasant Union Leaders in Peru, in: Bulletin of Latin American Research, 9, 2, 229-47. |
|
RADCLIFFE, Sarah (1993) |
People Have to Rise up - Like the Great Women Fighters: The State and Peasant Women in Peru in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London, 197-118. |
|
UNESCO, (1980) |
Some Ideas from Women Technicians in Small Countries: Impact XXX (1) (includes a chapter on Peru) |
|
VARGAS, V (1990) |
The Women's Movement in Peru: Rebellion into Action, WP H12 155, The Hague: Institute of Social Studies. |
|
Gender and Education | |
|
ANDERSON, Jeanine et al. (1983) |
L'image de la Femme et de l'Homme dans les Livres Scolaires, Peruviens, UNESCO, Paris |
|
ARRIAGADA, A.M. (1990) |
Labour Market. Outcomes of Non-Formal Training for Male and Female Workers in Peru, in: Economics of Education Review, 9, 331-342. |
|
HERZ, Barbara K KHANDKER, Shahidur R (eds) (1991) |
Women's Work, Education and Family Welfare in Peru, World Bank, Washington DC. |
|
KING, Elizabeth M (1989) |
Does Education Pay in the Labour Market? The Labour Force, Participation, Occupation and Earnings of Peruvian Women, World Bank, Washington DC. |
|
LAFOSSE, V.S. (1992) |
Co-educational Settings and Educational and Social, Outcomes in Peru in: STROMQUIST, N . (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne, Rienner, London, 87-106. |
|
STROMQUIST, N (ed) (1988) |
Feminist Reflections on Peruvian University Politics, in: Higher Education, 17, 5 81 -601. |
|
STROMQUIST, N (1992) |
Feminist Reflections on the Politics of the Peruvian University, in STROMQUIST, N . (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 147-170. |
|
Gender | |
|
COMAS-DÍAZ, Lillian (1985) |
The Cultural Context: A Factor in Assertiveness Training with Mainland Puerto Rican Women, in, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9,4,463-475. |
|
Gender | |
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ABRAMOVITZ, J. NICHOLS, R (1992) |
Women and Bio-diversity: Ancient Reality, Modem Imperative, Development, in: Journal of the Society for International Development, 2 |
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CONSEJO NACIONAL DE LA MUJER, VENEZUELA (1994) |
Venezuela, Informe Preliminar Nacional. IV Conferencia Mundial de la Mujer. VI Conferencia Preparatoria Regional para América Latina y el Caribe. Septiembre 1994. |
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CONSEJO NACIONAL DE LA MUJER, VENEZUELA. (1995) |
Venezuela. Informe IV Conferencia Mundial de la Mujer. Beijing 4-15 Septiembre 1995. |
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INSTITUTO DE LA MUJER (ESPAÑA) y FLACSO (CHILE) (1993) |
Mujeres Latinoamericanas, En Cifras. Venezuela, FLACSO, Chile. |
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GARCÍA GUADILLA María-Pilar (1993) |
Ecologia: Women, Environment and Politics in Venezuela, in: RADCLIFFE, Sarah A and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds) "Viva" Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London. 65-87 |
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GARCÍA GUADILLA María Pilar (1986) |
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General
CATANZARITE, Lisa (1992) Gender, Education and Employment in Central America: Whose Work Counts?, in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 67-84.
This chapter examines the relationship between education and work. Although the association between them tends indeed to be positive, Catanzarite shows this is true only of formal. not informal, service occupations. Within the formal sector the association is not strictly linear; rather a curvilinear pattern emerges as women with both high and low levels of education tend to participate more than those with in-between levels.
Theories of female participation tend to assume that women are dependent on men's wages and that their participation in the labour force is essentially a question of aspirations and opportunity cost calculations. Catanzarite argues instead that for poor women work is a necessity for family survival. Therefore, at that level, the association between education and work is irrelevant. Further, women in the informal sector -regardless of educational level- are paid less than men. These findings are important because the informal sector is expanding and women's participation in it is already greater than men's. In addition, educated women tend to have more stable employment than uneducated women., but many educated women end up in the informal sector of the economy.
Catanzarite's study calls for a reformulation of economic theory to include women's particular role in family survival. It challenges the notion that education will facilitate women's incorporation into the labour force and generate greater income. Neither of these claims is true when women face unstable employment, a strong feature of informal-sector participation. In consequence, the improvement of women's conditions lies not in greater education but in the improvement of wages and the creation of more stable jobs for women, many of whom find their incorporation in the labour force precarious. (Stromquist)
FINK, Marcy (1992) Women and Popular Education in Latin America, in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 171-193.
Marcy Fink's chapter examines the concept of nonformal education and particularly "popular education". It maps both conceptually and descriptively the features and achievements of popular education-a type of education that is expanding and becoming more refined in Latin America and yet remains relatively unknown in the United States.
In a detailed description of popular education programs, Fink notes the variety they offer in characteristics, content, and strategies. Notwithstanding this variability, they all share the objectives of providing women an educational alternative to that provided by the formal educational system, which tends to be prescriptive of women's traditional norms and roles. Whether using games, theatre, or more common didactic approaches, popular education for women seeks their acquisition of emancipatory skills.
Fink provides various arguments to support the case that adult women's education must be central in the process of social transformation. It must affect domestic relations and mothers in them. Intervening for adult women will accelerate the process of social change by creating a new socialisation process for children, by encouraging mothers to reduce their enforcement of the sexual division of labour at home, and by evincing new forms of questioning of male power, thereby renegotiating domestic relations.
This chapter also highlights the major tensions within popular education. A key weakness so far has been the lack of linkage between local activities and social policy. Yet from a feminist perspective, this may also be a strength. By conducting work in areas in which the state does not intervene, popular education has opened spaces for contestation that will make the state respond not by policy but through the acceptance of new issues. (Stromquist)
RADCLIFFE, Sarah A. and WESTWOOD, Sallie (eds.) (1993) "Viva": Women and Popular Protest in Latin America, Routledge, London and New York.
Powerful grassroots movements in Latin America are demanding fundamental social and political change to a continent which has seen revolutionary governments, authoritarian dictatorships and reformist military administrations. Through their active involvement women are seen for the first time as integral to the process of democratisation. Yet these women are not a simple unity with shared aims; class and ethnicity create division.
"Viva" explores the growing role of women in the formal and informal politics of the countries of Latin America. Through contemporary case studies, the contributors examine how gender-politics in the region is institutionalised in a variety of spheres varying from the state to local groups. The book focuses in particular on the role of the state in the construction of gender, questioning whether the emergence of women's activism and agendas represent a fundamental shift away from the historical marginalization of women from politics. The centrality of gender, class and ethnicity in the ideological construction of "the nation" is discussed.
Following an initial chapter by the editors on "Gender, Racism and the Politics of Identities in Latin America", this book contains a series of country based examinations of particular feminist issues such as: the gendering of consciousness; women and the environment; links with the Catholic church; popular education; community development; the cultural contribution of women; linking the modem with the traditional; the politics of protest. The country case studies range across: Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico and Peru.
SCHMUKLER, Beatriz (1992) Women and the Microsocial Democratisation of Everyday Life, in: STROMQUIST, N (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 251-276.
Parents, particularly low-income parents, have little power and ability to negotiate the education of their children. This disadvantage is suffered essentially by women, who as mothers are expected to be the ones to supervise the education of children, or at least to become more involved in it than are their husbands.
In this chapter, Beatriz Schmukler discusses the careful although fragile construction of a space where parents can negotiate and renegotiate educational services and practices with school authorities. Although these parent-school authority transactions occur mostly in the area of democratising participation, they concern gender issues in two ways. First, the democratisation of school practices involves mothers more than fathers because mothers must respond to the social norm that they are responsible for their children. Second, as some parents negotiate new relations with school authorities, such as the creation of student centres that could foster more student discretion, they are opposed by other parents who are concerned with the morality of their daughters and want to keep traditional authoritarian practices in schools. Schmukler describes an experiment that was intended to increase the flexibility of key actors in the educational system: parents, teachers, and school authorities. She discusses the limits of participation-the school challenges the possible contributions of mothers as educators and seeks collaboration only for the purpose of facilitating the school's task. A school's call for participation will fail because teachers differentiate also among parents, the good parents being those whose children have no problems. Thus, those more likely to have legitimate demands upon the school are disqualified from participation. Further, mothers continue to think in narrow, immediate family terms. Schools fragment parental participation, so these women have little opportunity to organise themselves autonomously. Hard-to-break authoritarian patterns of school and the fact that mothers are the main interlocutors make it even more difficult because mothers are expected to support, not question, the socialisation of their children. As children move up the educational ladder, the role of mothers becomes further limited because they are seen as resources to avoid school failure. Mothers are doubly subordinated (because of class and gender) by school authorities to act as socialisation agents for children, and this presumes that mothers accept the school's messages. The study by Schmukler shows that it is possible for mothers to participate and to become more aware of their rights regarding the education of their children. Yet this participation is fraught with self-doubt and requires mothers to confront behaviours by school, authorities and teachers that circumscribe participation to a few aspects of the educational setting. (Stromquist)
STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London
This book is the prime text on women, education and development in Latin America, or at least within the medium of English. It is a collective tour de force ranging across several key areas of concern and a fair proportion of the countries within the region. Many of the chapters form the basis of individual annotations below, but here we will concentrate on the structure of book and the introduction by the editor.
Apart from the introduction, the thirteen chapters comprising this book are grouped into four parts: education, the state and the economy; women and the formal education system; adult women and formal educational efforts; making changes. Overall the book explores the role of education -broadly defined - in reproducing inequality and sexual divisions of labour, and finds the cause of women's inferior situation to be both ideological and material. Central to the book, and relevant to the emerging process of redemocratisation, is the point that knowledge can be used to contest and transform meaning and thus to question existing authority and create new power.
The editorial introduction acknowledge that the Latin American region exhibits a greater degree of social and economic development than most other zones of the so-called 'developing' world. In broad terms, regional and national statistics show a situation near to gender parity as far as education -or at least schooling- is concerned, though a tendency for gender related curricular experiences remains. Perhaps this apparent equality is the reason for the paucity of literature on gender and education in this region? Educational opportunity does not necessarily resolve other forms of gender based disadvantage where, as the author puts it: "the subordination of women is anchored in both ideological and material conditions". The widening of educational opportunities under state control merely extends that control.
In such a situation, Stromquist asks: "When are spaces or opportunities created in the educational system for the introduction of emancipatory gender ideas? "In fact nonformal education is well developed in Latin America where it is known as "educación popular" and the mobilisation of women through participation in such a form of emancipation is a move towards democracy.
The editor concludes that: "Women are doing much better than before in terms of access to education and years of education attained, but problematical situations remain in several areas: content of curriculum materials; the social and organisational arrangements used in schools, classrooms and teachers' unions; the presence of women in teachers unions; women's literacy rates; and the design and scope of nonformal educational programs".
STROMQUIST, Nelly (1992) Women and Literacy in Latin America, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 19-32.
As compared with the other two mayor regions of the so-called 'developing world', Latin America has enjoyed considerably more educational expansion in the post 1950 period. With most countries of the region having been independent for nearly 200 years, and despite periods of constraint on public education, strong policies on the provision of schooling have made UPE a reachable target within a generation and USE is also close in several countries. There is also a large and significant tertiary sector in regional terms.
And yet Latin America exhibits some major problems of literacy when one examines the situation on a smaller scale. The gender gap, almost imperceptible on macro aggregated figures suddenly becomes a chasm in certain contextual circumstances, for example in the poor rural areas and in the favellas and barrios of the big cities: in short, whenever poverty is widespread and entrenched. As the author puts it: "Clearly the elimination of illiteracy among women will necessitate the elimination of poverty, and the redefinition of women's role in society".
Literacy programmes have been a feature of Latin American countries since the days of Jose Vasconcelos at least, but many of them have merely confirmed the status quo due to their content and modus operandi. In the poorest areas the educational experiences of everybody are severely limited and: "It is clear that the condition of women's literacy is tied to the condition of men's literacy, which in turn is affected mostly by poverty and social class location". Because most work on poverty fails to identify sexual dichotomy, because total population data are used, the additional contrasts on females caused by traditional roles and cultural restrictions are rendered invisible. Government literacy programmes have tended to be very traditional in that they concentrate on language issues, failing to work from social realities to generate conversations.
With respect to the situation of women in Latin America, unless the problem is perceived from certain directions, appropriate solutions cannot be imagined. Illiteracy problems of women are situated at the cross-roads of class and gender subordination, and resolution of these problems must start from there. To do otherwise would be to deny meaning to literacy exercises and fail to motivate poor women.
BONDER, Gloria (1992) Altering Sexual Stereotypes Through Teacher Training, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 229-249.
Teachers, as an integral part of educational settings, play a key role in the transmission of gender ideologies. Through everyday actions, notions of femininity and masculinity are shaped, strengthened, and transmitted. Teachers have been the targets of many change efforts, usually through systematic efforts designed to produce attitudinal change. In this chapter, Bonder reviews the studies on sexual stereotypes in Argentine textbooks and then gives a detailed account of one carefully conceived intervention that, although time-intensive, was not expensive in terms of the resources required. That this intervention took place in Argentina, a country with a strong belief in its gender progressiveness, makes it all the more interesting because the intervention confronted its participants with evidence of inequality and subordination that contradicted prevailing perceptions of gender equality in that society. The intervention, in the hands of a skilful psychologist, shows that well-conceived treatments- even though brief in comparison to the whole of experiences and situations that women teachers undergo in their everyday life- can be powerful in creating modified perceptions and attitudes. The in-service training implemented by Bonder also shows that technologies such as audiocassettes can be used effectively to provide stimuli for group discussion and that these group discussions can result in significant and stable changes among the participants.
An additional important contribution made by Bonder lies in the identification of the fears and conflicts that emerged among women teachers as they moved from a traditional to a more progressive, emancipatory view of gender relations. As described in her study, concerns about engaging in "a war between the sexes", creating domestic conflicts, and losing their "power in the domestic sphere" were troubling the teachers as they went on to implement changes in their individual lives. One inference from this is that women cannot readily change; in their everyday practice they will encounter transactions with men and family that make them unhappy and uncertain about the new terrain they are entering. Bonder's study, when juxtaposed with that of Sara-Lafosse, suggests that students in both coeducational schools and single-sex schools may be facing teachers who are themselves very uncertain about altering their own notions of femininity and masculinity. (Stromquist).
BRASLAVSKY, Cecilia (1992) Educational Legitimation of Women's Economic Subordination in Argentina, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 47-66.
Braslavsky's study combines census data and survey data. Her analysis of macrolevel census data is juxtaposed with the current socio-economic structure and the social functions of education. She connects the presence of sex stereotypes in textbooks to the existence of social norms about women's proper role at home and in society.
Although Argentina has extremely high levels of women participating in education, Braslavsky explains that their participation in a school system that continues to present images of women as passive and devoted to home and family has not eroded the existence of a type of domesticity that functions to exclude women from the public sphere. Her cross-sectional research, which observes students at two points in their high school experience- the first and the last year of studies-provides evidence of disparate academic achievement, depending on the socio-economic status of the school's student body. Although low-income students seem to be slightly more aware than their high-income peers of inequalities in society, all students tend to believe that individual characteristics determine academic success. The egalitarian myth, then, is strong at the individual level, and girls tend to endorse it even more than do boys.
The comparison between first-year and fifth-year students does not reveal a definite pattern in the perceptions of school failure and value orientations of students, which leads Braslavsky to conclude that the five-year school experience does not substantially modify the distribution of perceptions based on gender and socio-economic positions students bring to school. (Stromquist)
HEALY, Kevin (1991) Animating Grassroots Development: Women's Popular Education in Bolivia, in: Grassroots Development, 15, 1, 26-34.
This article has to do with the work of CIMCA (Capacitación Integral de la Mujer Campesina), a grassroots organisation founded in 1982 by Evelyn Barron and Rita Murillo. Its style was influenced by the work of Vasconcelo and Freire, taking the form of a ratafolio: that is to say, a mobile 'civics programme' based on popular experience and animated by the use of puppets, dramas and other visuals. Throughout the 1980s the indigenous population suffered especially severely due to the level of male migration to urban areas, leaving mothers, wives, sisters behind to eke out a living from small family farms.
The project director at that time, Evelyn Barron, insisted that: "women are the great untapped resource in Latin America, but are limited to agricultural occupations", but she was under no illusions as to the level of official interest in CIMCA, observing that: "we are setting our chance because almost everything else has failed". Indeed the aim of CIMCA from the outset was to move away from aid-based development towards self-help and empowerment. The project leaders and workers invested directly in people and under-utilised facilities (such as church halls). Working out of Oruro they established many locations of activity, touring by van and identifying educadora popular "a popular education capable of promoting community development". Young single women were the desired trainees.
There was some male backlash to contend with, especially as the movement gained a foothold inside the traditional peasant organisations, and the women acquired a stronger self-image. The contents of the rotafolio were products of local workshops, the effort "channelling anger at the recognition of systematic discrimination towards a search for effective remedial action". In effect they were creating "participatory institutes at the base of society to ensure that democracy becomes more than a hollow word".
ROSEMBERG, Fulvia (1992) Education Democratisation and Inequality in Brazil, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 33-46.
A consequence of powerlessness is not being able to attract research attention to problems one considers important. In the case of women, many important educational issues remain understudied. Yet as Rosemberg's study shows, available census data can be analysed to understand gender conditions. Her study further explores the intersection between gender and ethnicity, a phenomenon especially relevant in a country such as Brazil.
Women have been gaining increased access to education in that country, and they now represent fully half of all students,. Inequalities emerge in years of educational attainment of men and women, in fields of study pursued by the two genders, and in the remuneration similar levels of education produce for men and women.
These findings are well known in the context of other countries. Rosemberg's contribution resides in showing that the gender hierarchy- at least in the Brazilian context- is subordinate to the race hierarchy. The inferior remuneration of women versus men is more pronounced than that of blacks versus whites, an intrigue outcome given the fact that blacks as a group attend poorest schools than whites. Without access to more direct data, we can only assume that society determines the values regardless of actual training and that women learn, through schooling and other social experiences, not to question monetary rewards. That this phenomenon occurs in other countries on the region is suggested by a study by David Post (1990), which found that girls in Peru across all social classes expected to earn less than boys. (Stromquist)
VIVEROS, Elena (1992) Vocational Training and Job Opportunities for Women in Northeast of Brazil, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 195-226.
This qualitative study provides a glimpse of the gender construction processes operating within nonformal education programs. Through interviews with school personnel and the personal perspectives of four students in a computer programming course, shows how the program, family messages, and internalised social expectations combine to reaffirm women in their traditional roles as women and future wives.
Of special interest is how a new field, such computers programming in the context of Northeastern, quickly become defined in such a manner that better rewarded positions go to men. That both men and women receive training in computer science does not prevent employers from offering different jobs to men and women graduates of these programs. Thus men are promptly defined as "programmers" and women as "word processors technicians". Confronted with stale definitions of women abilities, the women graduates from this program express disappointment at their limited chances for finding appropriate and well-remunerated employment; at the same time, they also show a willingness to accept the conditions in which they live and to give priority to family and marriage plans.
In the end, a new occupational field that can be equally filled by women and men is recast so that it fits existing perceptions of femininity and masculinity. This suggests that the introduction of technologies is not necessarily accompanied by shifts in gender and social relations. (Stromquist)
VALDES, Ximena (1992) The Women's Rural School: An Empowering Educational Experience, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 277-302.
This chapter by Ximena Valdes offers a firsthand account of the evolution of an educational intervention with low-income women in Chile. It depicts how what started as brief gender-consciousness sessions gradually became redesigned into a rural women's school to provide its participants the space and time needed for an effective reflection of their situation as women and workers.
This account details the strategic decisions that program designers had to make in order to serve women effectively. Working with women who were so heavily involved in domestic and remunerated work activities made it necessary to take them to a new setting (the rural school) for four-day meetings over a six-month period. Pedagogically, it was felt that the identification of labour demands by the women would be a good starting point for the discussion of their subordination in society. Because the low-income women tended to combine work and family issues in their perception of personal problems, the program designers had to create homogeneous groups along lines of occupational interest.
Valdes shows that this popular education program, in terms of creating a critical understanding and new visions among the participants, was successful. However, two major problems were encountered: first, the tension the women developed between solving immediate economic problems and addressing longer-term social change; second, the tendency among the participants to engage in collective action and to adopt a feminist discourse while attending the rural school, but to encounter difficulties in continuing such practices upon return to their communities. The resolution of these tensions calls for supportive measures in the social and economic arenas of the country as a whole, a condition beyond the program designers' control. Although the popular education program will go on, its developers raise questions about the opportunities that may emerge now that Chile has a democratic regime. (Stromquist)
MENDIOLA, Haydée M (1992) Gender Inequalities and the Expansion of Higher Education in Costa Rica STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 125-145.
This chapter examines the changes in the participation of women in higher education that derive from a major expansion of the university system in Costa Rica. This rich quantitative study compares enrolment changes over a seven-year interval and traces university graduates as they join the labour force.
Mendiola finds no changes in the participation rates of men and women as new types of universities are created. This supports findings detected in other countries, namely that as more men seek higher education, so too do more women. The principle of homogenous marriage may be at work, a concept that deserves further consideration.
A positive result from the expansion of university education is that women tend to increase their chances of completing their studies and moving into a more diversified set of fields of study. On the other hand, women from upper classes are the ones who move into the new fields, including nonconventional fields for women.
The Costa Rican data also show that access to higher education does not result in the same benefits for men and women. Different types of educational institutions produce different levels of financial compensation in the labour force for their graduates, an effect that is more marked among women than among men.
In all, the chapter warns us that the process of social and gender stratification is an enduring one and that university expansion alone does not significantly alter the field-of-study choices and income of lower sectors of society. (Stromquist)
CORTINA, Regina (1989) Women as Leaders in Mexican Education, in: Comparative Education Review, 33, 3, 357-376.
In Mexico the late nineteenth century creation of teacher training colleges was accompanied by new opportunities for women. By 1907 nearly 80 per cent of normal school students were female, though partly because of this there were very few women in the universities. Nearly a century later, the majority of Mexican teachers are women, though positions of authority and power still tend to reside with men. This is because gender differences have been institutionalised in teacher education and employment.
Within Mexican public education, women are concentrated in the lower tier of the system. Even though over 30 per cent of university students are female, they tend to be found in traditionally 'female' fields such as liberal arts, teaching, nursing and social work. There is a firmly rooted prejudice that "women who study are a bad investment for the state", and the kinds of socio-cultural premises created lead to the dropout of a significant number of female workers even in these welfare-oriented areas.
Within all this, the one sure avenue for women is teaching. Even a proportion of the Mexican female elite hold a normal school degree, but normal school has never enjoyed the status of the high schools - the route to universities - and dominated by men. This was institutionalised subordination.
The article moves on to address the relationship between gender inequality and educational employment. Even the high percentage of school principals who are female does not mean that a critical mass of women in the educational system has real power. Over the last 50 years, the author claims that: "the expansion of jobs for middle class women in teaching in Mexico has been closely linked to the implementation of access to education for more and more children". Even the teacher training sector has been feminised but few women hold managerial positions in it, a phenomenon that: "cannot be explained without understanding how the private and public worlds of women interact in their lives as teachers".
In order to probe into this issue the author interviewed 22 successful female teachers and 21 successful male teachers -all but 2 of the 43 were trained in the public sector. It was found that barriers to female advancement were partly due to institutionalised prejudices in the educational system and indeed the profession, and partly due to the demands of family responsibility. Nonetheless Cortina concludes that women in education in Mexico form a privileged group among Mexican women in general, there being strong Union support and genuinely equal pay. Further decentralization might devolve more power to women in the profession, but those private family responsibilities, still unequally shared between men and women, will continue to be a constraint on many potential leaders.
CORTINA, REGINA (1992) Gender and Power in the Teachers' Union in Mexico, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 107-124.
Women represent the largest group among primary school teachers in many countries of the world. Although this means that potentially they could play a decisive role within their profession, this is in fact seldom the case.
A case study of the participation of women teachers as union members and leaders is provided in Cortina's chapter. Through her examination of the National Union of Education Workers in Mexico, the largest union and unquestionably one of the most powerful in Mexico, Cortina explains how the high participation of women in union membership has not been reflected in leadership positions. This situation is complex and results not only from women's self-exclusion based on prevailing norms of "virtuous women" who must refrain from meeting with men in awkward settings, but also from women's everyday constraints as they feel responsible for the domestic life of their families. The limitations women face are further fostered by the male leadership of unions that, consciously or unconsciously, draws upon women's norms of passivity and devotion to gear their involvement into supportive activities for the union. Thus, women's units in the union ironically end up playing social auxiliary roles rather than providing substantive political input. The recent demise of the women's units, however, might also signal a defensive response on the part of male leadership to preclude the emergence of effective space for women. Cortina's qualitative investigation provides insights into how gender as a system of power relations contributes to maintain political structures and social inequalities. Women teachers show little knowledge of the female leaders representing them; female leaders, in turn, show little awareness of feminist ideas or of the need to address problems salient among women. Thus, reproduction of the status quo continues. (Stromquist)
SARA-LAFOSSE, Violeta, (1992) Coeducational Settings and Educational and Social Outcomes in Peru, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 87-105.
The study by Sara-Lafosse is unusual in that it considers benefits other than academic achievement for the development of boys and girls in Schools. Her findings have to be appreciated in the context of a Latin society that is machista in nature and in which strong beliefs about the sexual division of labour prevail.
Research in other countries indicates that boys tend to benefit from both single-sex and coeducational schools. They accrue benefit under both settings from the preferential treatment they tend to receive from both men and women teachers. Research that controls for factors such as socio-economic status has also shown that in some countries girls register greater gains in academic achievement when they attend single-sex schools.
Although coeducational schools may be in some instances detrimental to girl's cognitive growth and may send hidden curricula messages reinforcing women's subordination, particularly through the modelling of men in important administrative positions, the coexistence of girls and boys in settings defined as serious and formal tends to reduce the myths of masculinity and femininity that set the genders apart from each other.
Sara-Lafosse's study shows that students perceptions of equal abilities by both sexes along a wide range of dimensions (intellectual to artistic) tend to be higher among students with substantial exposure to coeducational schooling than among those whose experience has been limited mostly to single-sex schools. Her data also show that levels of aggression- and essential feature of machista behaviour- and the belief that housework is solely a woman's task diminish for boys in coeducational schools. For those who think of the many virtues in single-sex schooling, Sara-Lafosse presents a view of other gains that accrue when there is a more open contact between male and female students. (Stromquist)
STROMQUIST, Nelly P (1992) Feminist Reflections on the Politics of the Peruvian University, in: STROMQUIST, Nelly (ed) (1992) Women and Education in Latin America. Knowledge, Power and Change, Lynne Rienner, London, 147-167.
This chapter examines a highly politicized university setting in order to detect the extent to which feminist currents have had an impact on the curriculum or the sociopolitical agenda of the university. In Peru, university students are highly sensitive to the questions of social, economic, and ethnic inequalities in the rest of the society- a feature that long has characterized them. This sensitivity to social disparities, unfortunately, has not been extended to gender issues.
Despite the fact that several fields have a large female enrollment and that women participate to a moderate degree in university politics, the political agenda is defined in the Marxist context of a class struggle, with feminist concerns dismissed as petty bourgeois. Women students who seek acceptance must then suppress these concerns.
Stromquist discusses the various factors that account for the low attention to gender issues in the university. Salient among these issues is the strong reliance on Marxist as a theoretical framework. Because it emphasizes the mode of production rather than the interplay between production and reproduction, this framework is compatible with existing patriarchal ideologies that leave little space for the development of a feminist agenda.
In conscience, politics at the university channels students activism into protecting the disadvantaged groups of society, yet it categorizes these people essentially in terms of their occupational roles as workers and peasants, not as gendered social actors. Ironically, although Peru has a well-developed feminist movement, with several large and stable groups and sustained publications, neither the university programs nor the activities within it reflects gender-related concerns. (Stromquist)
