Background
READ educational trust
READ's classroom libraries
Methodology
Findings
Conclusion
Notes
References
Thuli Radebe
Socio-economic and political context
The Republic of South Africa occupies the southern extremity of the African continent, covering a total area of 1,219,080 sq. km (Hutcheson 1998: 944). It has common borders with Namibia in the north-west, with Botswana in the north, and with Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland in the north-east, whilst Lesotho, lying within the eastern part of the Republic, is entirely surrounded by South African territory (Hutcheson 1998: 944). Since the new dispensation of 1994, the country comprises nine provinces, namely, the Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, North West, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and Northern Province.
According to preliminary estimates of the size of the population of South Africa produced by the Central Statistical Services (CSS) in October 1996, there are approximately 37.9 million people in South Africa. This figure surprised the CSS which had projected approximately 42.1 million in 1996 (CSS 1997: 4). It was the first time that all the people of South Africa were counted as members of a united democratic nation (CSS 1997: 7). By province, in millions, 7.7 are in KwaZulu-Natal; 7.2 in Gauteng; 5.9 in Eastern Cape; 4.1 in Northern Province; 4.1 in Western Cape; 3.0 in North West; 2.6 in Mpumalanga; 2.5 in Free State; and 0.7 in Northern Cape. The same estimates inform us that more than half (55.4%) of the estimated population of South Africa lives in urban rather than non-urban areas. Of the 37.9 million people, 18.2 million (48%) are male, and 19.7 million female (52%).
South Africa's Gross National Income, measured at average 1993-95 prices, according to the estimates of the World Bank reported by Hutcheson (1998: 956), was US$130,918 million, equivalent to US$3,160 per capita.
Krige et al. (1995: 76) reported that, with a few exceptions, people are 'very badly off in the former homelands and independent states, particularly the former Transkei and parts of KwaZulu-Natal which are both the poorest and most educationally disadvantaged areas in South Africa, whilst the Western Cape and Gauteng are substantially better off than the rest of the country.
Most South Africans are under-educated and under-prepared for full participation in social, economic and civic life (Krige et al. 1995: 79). The conclusion was that whites, with small families and high rates of employment are generally well off; Indians are also relatively well off, with moderate incomes prevailing in high density areas, especially in KwaZulu-Natal.
As many scholars of South Africa are now well aware, the corning to power of the Nationalist Party in 1948 brought with it a number of political changes. Key amongst these are the Group Areas and the Population Registration Acts of 1950 which classified people into four main population groups (whites, blacks, coloureds and Indians). Acquisition of land was restricted to areas designated for the different groups whilst the Bantu Authorities Act no 68 of 1951 created homelands (which functioned as politically 'independent' states) to provide land for the various black ethnic groups. However these states were re-incorporated into a unitary South Africa on 27 April 1994. The impact of these changes is explained by Nkomo (1991) and Kaniki (1997).
The national assembly of the new Government of National Unity under the presidency of Nelson Mandela comprises 400 seats of which the African National Congress (ANC), the ruling party, has 252 after obtaining 63% of the vote in 1994. Since the new 'democratically' elected government came into power a number of human rights have been extended to all racial, ethnic and religious groups in the country and new ones added. The country is still undergoing transformation with numerous transition problems due to the damage caused by apartheid. The extent of this damage becomes clear in the following discussions.
Education policies and practices
Number of schools and school enrolment
The Education Foundation (1997: 3) recorded 27,188 schools in the whole of South Africa. Each of the nine provinces is divided into regions which are further divided into districts and circuits. For instance, the Pietermaritzburg Region in the KwaZulu-Natal Province has six districts, one of which has a total of 646 public schools.
Regarding pupil enrolment, CSS (1996) estimated 11,869,000 pupils: 852,000 in the Western Cape; 2,331,000 in the Eastern Cape; 198,000 in Northern Cape; 777,000 in the Free State; 2,572,000 in KwaZulu-Natal; 916,000 in North West Province; 1,414,000 in Gauteng; 915,000 in Mpumalanga; 1,918,000 in Northern Province. De Villiers (1997: 80) estimated that more than 400,000 pupils annually enter that part of the school system (the former black departments) which has a history of inefficiency and low pass rates and which appears to lack a learning culture.
Krige et al. (1995: 79) referred to some estimates which put the number of 'out of school' children in South Africa as high as 2.5 million, with between 25% and 74% of African children in large areas of the country being out of school.
Historical overview of education
Nkomo (1990: 1) pointed out the qualitative change which was brought about by the accession of the Nationalist Party to power in 1948. He explained that segregated and inferior education was legislated for Africans in 1953 by the Bantu Education Act, for coloureds in 1963 and for Indians in 1965, providing an ideological cornerstone for the social segregation, economic exploitation and political oppression of these groups to varying degrees, according to race.
Kaniki (1997: 3) reported that the Tricameral Parliament came into effect, alongside the homeland system, through the Republic of South Africa Constitution Act of 1983. This parliament comprised three chambers to serve all interests, including education, of three groups. These were the House of Assembly (HOA) to serve the white population, the House of Representatives (HOR) to serve the coloured and the House of Delegates (HOD) to serve Indians. By the same Act of 1983, blacks in the self-governing territories outside the borders of South Africa ran their own education systems under 'own affairs'. A separate Department of Education and Training (DET) administered black education within the borders of South Africa although this was the portfolio of the Minister in the Cabinet attached to the House of Assembly (Kaniki 1997: 3).
The dispensation described above gave birth to 15 Ministries of Education (some sources estimate 19) in South Africa (Karlsson, Nassimbeni and Karelse 1996: 6; de Villiers 1997: 79). These existed until the first democratic elections of 1994 which led to the establishment of a single Ministry of Education. The 15 Ministries and their Departments were differentiated along racial and ethnic lines in accordance with the apartheid system and philosophy of Christian National Education which entrenched the unequal allocation of educational resources. One of the aims of apartheid education given by Nkomo (1990: 2) encapsulates the deliberate destructiveness of this system, that is, 'to promote black intellectual underdevelopment by minimizing the educational resources for blacks while maximizing them for whites'. People were brainwashed to believe that the Divine Will had created the Native as a perpetual 'drawer of water and a hewer of wood and that it would be contrary to God's will to change his lot' (Kutoane and Kruger 1990: 9). People were farther threatened with punishment from God if they interfered with that plan by raising the Native from that position.
Although compulsory school education for whites was introduced as early as 1905, it was not legislated for all the other race groups until much later (de Villiers 1997: 76). Baine and Mwamwenda confirmed that education was free and compulsory for all white children for the first ten years; was compulsory since 1979 and 1980 respectively for Asian and coloured children; was neither free nor compulsory for black children (Baine and Mwamwenda 1994: 121) until the passing of the South African Schools Act in 1996 as noted by de Villiers (1997: 76). In their mapping of educational provision in the past, Krige et al. (1995: 76) noted:
'gross neglect of African education in the past. The education of coloured people has been relatively better but there are several aspects of serious concern, while education provision for Indians and whites especially is satisfactory.'
In support of the foregoing, de Villiers (1997: 80) noted the inadequate supply of books and other facilities, and a drastic shortage of well-qualified teachers. Sidiropoulos (1997: 183) and Krige et al. (1995: 78) reported an enormous shortage of classrooms countrywide. For instance, a shortage of 15,000 classrooms was recorded in KwaZulu-Natal alone in 1995; about 58,600 pupils in Gauteng were without classrooms in 1996; whilst a shortage of 5,000 classrooms was noted in Mpumalanga in 1996 (Sidiropoulos 1997: 183).
Krige et al. (1995: 78) set the national average in pupil/teacher ratios at 41:1, the average coloured pupil/teacher ratio being 23:1, that of Indians being 22:1, whilst there are many districts in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape with pupil/teacher ratios of more than 46:1. In the former Transkei, for instance, almost all districts have between 48 and 100 pupils per classroom whereas worse scenarios have been revealed informally by education authorities and teachers in KwaZulu-Natal, with some ratios around and in excess of 70:1 (Gwala1 1997). On a positive note Sidiropoulos (1997: 197) has subsequently stated that national goals in this area are 40:1 and 35:1 in primary and secondary schools respectively, to be reached by April 2000.
De Villiers (1997: 80) observed that in addition to the role that schools played in dismantling apartheid, they have also played a major role in undermining a learning culture in South Africa. Manifestations of this breakdown in the learning culture were described by Karlsson (1996: 8), from another source, as characterized by the late arrival of pupils and teachers, early departures, class dodging, truancy and even basking in the sun. A level of apathy in both teachers and pupils is also observable.
Bane and Mwamwenda (1994: 123) observed more extreme and intractable problems in rural areas because of greater poverty, geographical and political isolation, fewer employment options, feelings of dependency, exacerbated by additional layers of bureaucracy and traditional authoritarianism, along with resistance to change.
Philosophy of education
Higgs (1997: 100) traced the theoretical foundations of the educational policies which led to the already described fragmentation along racial and ethnic lines to the influence of Fundamental Pedagogics (FP), which was the dominant philosophical discourse in education in apartheid South Africa. Taylor (1993: 3) reported a view that FP was more about socialization than philosophy, and more about instilling passive acceptance of authority than providing students with the conceptual tools necessary for creative and independent thought. Furthermore Higgs (1994: 90;1997: 100) concluded that FP restrained the learner from participating critically in learning interaction (Higgs 1994: 90), thus instilling a spirit of intolerance, and an unwillingness to accommodate divergent perspectives and points of view. This feature strongly characterizes South African political debate today.
The shortcomings/deficiencies of teachers, including their lack of information handling skills, have been pointed out by a number of authors (Stadler 1992; READ 1993; Radebe 1994; Behrens 1995). Radebe (1994: 43) revealed how some of the teachers who register for the Diploma in School Librarianship were incapable of locating and accessing information, analyzing and synthesizing this information and formulating their own opinions. READ (1996: 19) observed that most teachers confessed to a lack of confidence in their own English language proficiency. The problem was clearly conceptualized by READ (1993) reporting that:
'...their professional training has not stressed the importance of reading, or equipped them to involve pupils in the learning process'.
In support, Olën (1995 in Karlsson, Nassimbeni and Karelse 1996: 11) noted the inadequate curriculum in training colleges which does not make taking courses in information skills compulsory, so as to equip teachers-in-training with skills to integrate information skills with their subject teaching.
It is argued that a new philosophical discourse in education is needed in South Africa to liberate South Africa's philosophy of education from ideological hegemony (Higgs 1997: 100) and to bring out a philosophy of education that is open and critical, and which encourages learning, enquiry, discussion and ongoing debate (Higgs 1997: 105). Correspondingly, the White Paper on Education and Training (South Africa 1995: 31) stipulated that courses for teachers should equip them with skills to select and use a wide variety of resources, employ methods which cultivate independence in learning, and which demand on-going growth in reading competence. This is in line with Bane and Mwamwenda's recommendation (1994: 126) for curricula which promote reflective education that goes beyond rote learning, while teaching students to critically evaluate the acquisition and use of knowledge and skills, as well as methods of problem-solving, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation of knowledge. This is consistent with Kuhlthau's recommendation (1993: 11) of the constructivist view of learning which involves students in learning through the use of a variety of resources. Since this perspective requires access to a wide range of materials for learning, it advocates developing information skills for learning from a variety of sources. The opposite view would be the transmission one which involves acquisition of factual knowledge delivered by the teacher, often called the 'the sage on the stage' method, or by predicted material from a textbook (Kuhlthau 1993: 11).
Curriculum 2005, the new national curriculum for the 21st Century, is based on the ideal of lifelong learning for all South Africans, according to Professor Bengu, the National Education Minister (South Africa. Department of Education (S.A. DoE 1997a). The new curriculum will effect a shift from a content-based to an outcomes-based education (OBE). One of the changes envisaged as a benefit of OBE in the classroom is that learners2 will know how to collect, gather and organize information and conduct research (Isaacman 1996). It is possibly for this reason that Karlsson, Nassimbeni and Karelse (1996: 13) argued that access to a wide range of learning resources is a critical and essential component of the new educational paradigm and not an optional luxury. One principle which informs the OBE curriculum, and which impacts on the school library and the provision of learning resources is that of learner-centredness (S.A. DoE 1997b). This principle prescribes that the development of learning programmes and materials should put learners first, thus implying different learning styles and rates of learning and teaching to accommodate all types of learners. The role of the school library in this area is therefore to provide learning resources for different phases and levels to meet the pace and needs of each learner (S.A. DoE 1997b). This further implies that educators have to be familiar with such learning resources and how they can be used in the learning environment. The OBE principle of relevance of the curriculum to the current and anticipated needs of the individual (amongst others) is contingent on individuals having skills to source, access, understand and manipulate information. To support this, the discussion document on school library provision standards (S.A. DoE 1997b) identified the school library as a suitable vehicle to provide resources for learners and acquire basic skills. The question one may ask is: how can this be realized with the desperate shortage of school libraries in South Africa? The principle of promoting critical and creative thinking acknowledges the changing nature of knowledge and the need to accommodate all thoughts and interests of the learner. The strong implication for the school library is that it has to make available learning resources and materials which will accommodate diverse schools of thought and interests, which has not been the case in the past (S.A. DoE 1997b: 18). The document concluded that the most important implication is that school libraries are essential to effective teaching and learning in the country.
The foregoing appears to be positive on a theoretical level. However, it should be noted, as pointed out by de Villiers (1997: 80), that the new system is plagued by the same inefficiency problems as before. This is because the same teachers, who lack motivation and efficiency, and the same apartheid era administrative personnel are still running the system.
Information provision
The South African library and information system is described by the National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) (1992: 7) as relatively well established with a variety of types of libraries which, at the end of 1991, were: school libraries; two national libraries; three legal deposit libraries; four provincial library services with numerous affiliated public libraries; 10 independent public libraries; 88 university, college and technikon libraries; 465 special libraries; 91 government department libraries; 10 'national' libraries in the previous homelands; and about 120 resource centres. Despite this well established system, Ferguson nearly 70 years ago (1929: 10) put into perspective the attitude which informed the exclusion of black people from even the most basic of these services:
'The South African is willing... for the native to carry his books to and from the library, but he would feel that an end of his regime was at hand if this same servant were permitted to open these books and read therein... ' (Ferguson 1929:10).
This statement reflects, to some extent, how long the problem of lack of library service provision to black people in South Africa has been in existence. It partially explains the extent to which deliberate damage has been inflicted on black people in this regard. A negligible number of libraries was available to black people from before and through the apartheid era both in the townships and in rural areas. The other races all had, in varying degrees but higher than blacks, access to public and school libraries. Indian and coloured townships were provided with public library facilities. The homelands were each provided with a 'national' library but with insufficient funding, some less than those of urban municipal public libraries (Stadler 1992: 45). This led to their inefficiency and 'uselessness', although some of them attempted to service schools as well as function as local public libraries. This deprivation of black people of library facilities was part of a grand apartheid scheme of controlling access to information for black people to avoid 'poisoning' their minds against the government. The apartheid scheme described above was sustained by instituting an education system for black people which did not require exposure to extra information and its resources.
It was only after 1973 that some city public libraries opened to all races. These included the Natal Society Library, in Pietermaritzburg, in 1975 and the Durban Central Lending Library in 1980 (Radebe 1996b: 51). Public librarians around the country have seen an upsurge in the number of black people who are patronizing these libraries resulting in shortages of space in a number of instances. Many resource centres, according to Stadler (1992: 45) were established during the mid-1980s by non-governmental organizations as an attempt to fill the gaps in information provision created by apartheid structures. It is within the past three years that a number of public3 libraries have been built by the KwaZulu-Natal Provincial Library Services in black townships and rural areas, a development which has been welcomed with applause.
School library provision
The various education administrative departments were different even in the way they handled library and media matters (NEPI 1992: 9-10), with a few of the departments formulating a specific library policy. Schools administered by HOA and HOD education departments (and to a lesser extent the HOR department) had library policies with good library collections and equipment and which were supported by subject advisers. The DET, the single largest provider of schools for African learners, only officially acknowledged the role of school libraries in teaching and learning in 1983. Prior to this development, there was no legal imperative to provide school libraries or train teacher librarians for African schools, resulting in enormous backlogs and generations of African learners and adults who are library illiterates (NEPI 1992). Krige et al. (1990) reported that as many as 76% of all schools in KwaZulu were without libraries. Six years later the situation had not improved with Schroen (Karlsson, Nassimbeni and Karelse 1996: 8) estimating that only 20% of schools have libraries in KwaZulu-Natal. In Soweto, of a total of 317 schools in 1992, only 80 (25%) had school libraries (Stadler 1992: 44), her further estimation being that R2.5 billion (US$587 million) would be required to provide all schools under its jurisdiction with a library.
Table 1. Number of schools and schools with libraries in South Africa. (EduSource Data News, 17 August 1997)
|
Province |
No. of schools |
No. of schools with libraries |
% of schools with libraries |
|
Eastern Cape |
5880 |
433 |
7% |
|
Free State |
2881 |
341 |
12% |
|
Gauteng |
2233 |
983 |
44% |
|
KwaZulu-Natal |
5409 |
955 |
18% |
|
Mpumalanga |
1907 |
290 |
15% |
|
Northern Cape |
526 |
175 |
33% |
|
Northern |
4107 |
205 |
5% |
|
North-west |
2412 |
340 |
14% |
|
Western Cape |
1770 |
916 |
52% |
|
TOTAL |
27188 |
4638 |
17% |
The Education Foundation (1997: 3) reported an alarming shortage of school libraries. Table 1 gives the number of schools with libraries by province. Out of a total of 27,188 schools, only 4,638 (17%) have libraries. This 17% is concentrated mostly in white and Indian schools and to a lesser extent in coloured schools. The Eastern Cape (7%) and Northern Province (5%) have the least number of libraries compared with 44% and 52% in Gauteng and Western Cape respectively. Since KwaZulu-Natal has the second largest number of schools and the largest number of pupils (CSS 1996), it is as poorly provisioned as the Eastern Cape.
It is estimated that it would cost approximately R450,000 (US$105,634) to build one school library with an area of 300 sq. m at a cost of R1,500 (US$352) per sq. m, based on the KwaZulu-Natal Provincial Library Service building norms and costs as presented by Bawa (1996: 238). This excludes the stock which would make the figure even bigger. How much it would cost to provide each of the 22,550 schools (without libraries) with a library is unthinkable.
The entire education system, according to Karlsson, Nassimbeni and Karelse (1996: 12) was also characterized by, amongst other things, people in positions of authority lacking an understanding of the relevance of learning resources in libraries. These authors summarized problems in the school library sector which were raised by a number of researchers: huge disparities in budgetary allocations between the different departments, giving rise to widespread absence of facilities, inadequate provision of materials, inadequate physical accommodation and lack of trained personnel, all evident in African schools; a lack of understanding of the role of information resources in teaching and learning, resulting in the marginalization of school libraries in the education sphere; and poor co-ordination between school libraries and other sectors. Karlsson, Nassimbeni & Karelse (1996: 12) observed that the administrative inefficiencies of the DET and many other factors neutralized the impact of efforts by departments which attempted to address the deficiencies and backlogs by distributing books and other media to schools.
One of the aims of the research by the National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) into library and information services (LIS) was to articulate links between LIS policy options and those for education (Walker 1993: 77). The results of this research led to the documentation of provisionally identified policy options for LIS in a future South Africa (Walker 1993: 76). One of the options suggested that library and information services should be governed within the framework of national educational policy with libraries integral to education at the formal and non-formal level (NEPI 1992). According to Stilwell (1995), the TRANSLIS Coalition, which was a collaboration often LIS groupings and was launched in 1992, grew out of co-operation achieved by the NEPI LIS Research Group. The mission of the TRANSLIS Coalition was to develop a national library and information service policy and programme. The discussion document which was produced by this coalition influenced the LIS section in the ANC Education Department's A policy framework for education and training which was published in 1994 (Stilwell 1995: 39). Regional branches of what is now the TRANSLIS Forum continue to work in some provinces, such as KwaZulu-Natal, towards producing policy documents which will direct the provision and governance of libraries in the provinces. Another research body, the Committee for Education Policy Document (CEPD), was hired by the ANC in 1994 to further develop LIS policy and to translate policy proposals into implementation plans or strategies. This resulted in the Implementation Plan for Education and Training (IPET) document which notes the central role that information and libraries play in all educational sectors (Stilwell 1995). In its policy proposals the ANC proposed that every education and training institution would provide its learners with access to an appropriate LIS (ANC 1995: 85).
It is true to say that the achievement so far has been the completion of the policy document which provides a national policy framework for school library standards (S.A. DoE 1997b: 3), but the nation is yet to see practical delivery. As de Villiers (1997: 80) warned earlier, the inefficiencies which plagued education still characterize the department today, coupled with an immense backlog which far outweighs available finances. The attitude of the Education Department towards school libraries has also not improved. Baker (1994: 141) indicated that cutbacks had targeted school libraries and the arts. She was later supported by Bawa (1996: 219) who reported the increasing withdrawal of full-time qualified teacher-librarians, because schools cannot afford these positions, and their being given increased teaching portfolios. Bawa (1996: 219) further concluded that the regarding of teacher-librarians as specialist teachers had resulted in no provision being made for them in the teacher/pupil ratio allocations, meaning that only those schools that have been able to raise the funding would be able to afford specialist teachers.
The remainder of this chapter presents an evaluation of the value and impact of the classroom library as a means of providing access to reading material at the primary level of education. A case study has been made of the classroom libraries provided through the READ Educational Trust4. In South Africa the READ classroom library model has been suggested as an alternative to the traditional school library (Karlsson 1996: 3).
Information about the READ Trust has been gleaned from various annual reports produced by READ. This non-profit-making educational trust which now has 13 regional offices around the country is funded by the South African private sector and foreign donors. It was founded in response to community concern regarding the lack of reading and library services in black townships (Menell in READ 1996: 1). Menell (in READ 1992:3) reported that READ began in 1979 with a small group of volunteers working out of limited space generously made available by St John's College. A Board of Trustees guides the macro affairs of READ and, together with elected regional committees, guides the policies of the READ Trust (READ 1991).
The mission of READ is:
'To help people throughout South Africa to develop their reading, writing, learning, information and communication skills so that they can become independent life-long learners' (READ 1996: 1).
The organization has clear objectives which aim to improve and enrich the learning experiences of all learners by promoting learner-centred teaching methods in a stimulating environment, thus providing them with various essential learning skills.
The READ programme consists of the most practical training programmes for principals, librarians, teachers, student teachers and community workers to inculcate in learners independent learning skills and improve language competencies through the use of books and other materials; it provides library resources as well as ongoing monitoring of projects to ensure that agreed objectives are met and that materials provided are used by educators and learners to improve reading and communication skills across the curriculum (Menell in READ 1996: 3).
The Training Centre in Braamfontein (Gauteng Province) provides the focal point for READ's work in schools, colleges and communities (READ 1996:7) by co-ordinating READ's materials and course development and specific training projects. It is at this training centre that READ trainers and leader-teachers attend a series of professional courses at the beginning of each year, which gives them a thorough understanding of READ's philosophy and methodology and the confidence to monitor and train on their own.
READ is further strengthened by its in-house assessment and evaluation process which involves the teachers assessing themselves, as well as being assessed by their colleagues or principals, and by READ staff. The data is used by READ to make decisions about revision of courses, development of materials and retraining of staff (READ 1995: 5). All READ courses clearly demonstrate how assessment is linked to specific outcomes and performance criteria (READ 1997:16), which is why READ boasts of:
'the growing capacity to evaluate outcomes in the classroom with a considerable degree of accuracy and to use those evaluations both as benchmarks and as a basis for comparison with situations in which our programmes are not offered. That capacity has already demonstrated most emphatically the measurable and highly cost effective value of our programmes in the classroom' (Menell in READ 1996: 3).
An opportunity to look back and take account of the entire process was recommended by Kuhlthau (1993: 13) who declared that assessing the process as well as the product at the end of the project was an essential part of the process approach to information skills.
Read programmes
· programmes for teachers
READ's leader-teacher programme is often described as an invaluable force for sustaining the READ training programme. It began in 1990 with the intention of training a corps of teachers (selected by READ's co-ordinators in its 13 regions of operation) in core READ courses and their support materials. The leader-teachers are chosen for their leadership qualities, their dedication to their profession and their excellent teaching commitment. They are encouraged to share their skills in the use and making of teaching aids through the running of workshops with colleagues in surrounding schools (READ 1997: 10).
The primary school programme (PSP) is a continuum of courses designed to improve the professional skills of language and subject teachers and librarians while improving the language competence and cognitive development of the children. This programme enables them to move from traditional rote learning to a child-centred, story-based approach which promotes active learning (READ 1996: 7).
The high school programme involves the development of courses. It has concentrated on the development of information skills. This has led to a module on Information Skills being included in the college syllabi (READ 1996: 8).
The partnership for change programme is a focused series of courses in Educational Management for Change. It consists of 14 modules in effective school governance which is offered to departmental officials, principals and the broader school community, equipping them with the necessary skills to become essential players in decision making and implementation (READ 1997: 18). Qualification criteria for the Diploma in Educational Management for Change, endorsed by Damelin, have been formulated jointly by READ, Damelin (a private college) and 20 representative principals from Gauteng schools.
Opportunities for the certification of READ programmes have begun to emerge (READ 1995: 7). For instance, teachers who have attended READ courses are offered credits by the Natal College of Education in Pietermaritzburg when they register to further their qualifications. The University of Port Elizabeth includes modules from READ courses in the diploma course offered as part of its in-service teacher training programme. The incentive of formal recognition and accreditation from the Education Department would motivate teachers to apply the underlying theories and philosophies of a resource-based approach to learning English (READ 1997:7).
· materials development
READ's materials development initiative designs courses and materials which are inexpensive and are aimed at encouraging teachers to write new material with their pupils (READ 1996: 12). READ's approach follows international trends in language and literacy development, especially trends in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The courses and materials provide teachers with the methodology demonstrated at training courses (READ 1993: 10) and the resources to implement the changes required by new educational policy (READ 1997: 23). READ's system which grades materials according to difficulty, does not tie them rigidly to particular school standards. An important conclusion is that 'the notion that all children in a given classroom are at the same level of development is a patent absurdity, perpetuated by teacher-centred classroom practices and by the illusion of uniformity promoted by an over-dependence on text-books' (READ 1995: 8).
The flexibility, in terms of level, that is built into READ's materials means that it is possible to distribute the same materials to pupils of differing cultural and linguistic backgrounds, providing a way of unifying and democratizing the classroom experiences of all school-going South Africans (READ 1995: 8). This is in line with Ray's recommendation (1994: 9) of a range of materials suitable for different levels of ability, e.g. puzzles, quizzes, competitions, pathfinders for the most popular subjects. As commented in a READ's annual report: 'by contrast the argument that different sectors of the population require different learning materials could be seen to represent exactly the forms of cultural and racial segregation favoured by the architects of apartheid' (READ 1995: 8).
To collaborate this view, Radebe (1995: 120) discounted the practice of restricting children to books which supposedly depict familiar settings, on the grounds that the practice was used by the apartheid government to justify and enforce a separate and inferior education for black people, and on the premise that what is familiar to one black child is not necessarily familiar to every black child.
READ materials
READ's materials are described briefly below:
· the Big Books contain original, previously unpublished stories which have been carefully selected, tested and edited to meet the needs of non-mother tongue English learners in South Africa (READ 1996: 12). The illustrations, drawn in full colour by professional artists, represent a wide range of artistic styles, media and techniques;· each Picture Story Pack contains a series of eight full-colour posters, six Little Books with copies of the posters in story sequence and a Teacher's Guide (READ 1996: 13). The objective is to stimulate pupils to tell or write stories based on a sequence of story posters, to develop visual literacy and to improve cognitive skills such as temporal sequencing, relating cause and effect, and predicting outcomes. The material is flexible and can be used for various levels of ability, and in any language;
· the Afrika-Tales are richly illustrated books, each containing one story based on indigenous oral tales from all over Africa (READ 1996: 13). The Afrika-Tales are intended for group and individual reading and aim to encourage independent reading and study skills;
· theme packs, which reportedly explore themes in the new curriculum, enable teachers to develop language, literacy and learning skills across the curriculum, whilst providing children with models for accessing and processing information from various forms of non-fiction texts and visual presentations, as well as teaching life skills.
Special projects
READ runs a number of special projects which all support a basic premise that reading is the key to life. Some of the projects are summarized below (READ 1997: 9):
· the Teachers ' Training College project provides a cost-effective way of intervening in education to assist student teachers in improving their own reading and information skills, while at the same time introducing them to a variety of appropriate teaching strategies (READ 1995: 7). READ has already made an impact in this area by, for instance, facilitating the formation, in KwaZulu-Natal, of a College Librarians' Association which has developed into a strong lobby group which has been able to tackle the Provincial Education department on matters of policy (READ 1997: 11);· through the Sunshine in South Africa Pilot Project, Sunshine books are presented in colourful boxes and are graded according to reading ability in packs containing 20 Big Books and 44 Little Books. The books are all story-based and cross-curricula in content. They have been cross-referenced to the specific learning outcomes of Curriculum 2005, they are easily translated into other languages and lend themselves to the local development of material;
· the Festival of Books (FOB) which involves dramatizations of stories and choral verse, explores ways in which stories can be used to develop pupils' language skills (READ 1997: 13);
· the READathon, which may involve holding story reading and storytelling performances, or organizing reading sessions at the (public) library, or motivating children to read a certain number of books in a certain time, is a national literacy awareness campaign (READ 1997: 13);
· as part of the IDT/ODA (now DFID) 15 Schools Book Project, the Independent Development Trust (IDT), through a network of 11 regional trusts, has built 12,000 classrooms all over South Africa since 1991, in rural and urban primary and secondary schools. In support, DFID (the British Government's Department for International Development) funded a two-year project to supply 15 completed schools with libraries of UK and local books as well as complementary training. The British Council which was asked to manage the project asked READ to select the material and conduct the training. The project has been completed, to be followed by its evaluation in 1998 (READ 1997: 13).
Read's role in the new education paradigm
Various national documents on teacher training, curriculum development and national qualification framework are being applied to curriculum development at provincial levels. Here READ plays an active role, since the changes government is planning to introduce in education and training have always been part of READ's philosophy (READ 1996: 12). READ already offers in-service (INSET) and pre-service (PRESET) training in active, child-centred teaching methods and outcome-based learning. Increasingly READ is working with educational authorities, subject advisers and college lecturers in this regard.
Baker (1994: 141) observed that cutbacks at formerly white schools started with libraries and the arts, implying that there is little chance of savings being channelled into new libraries. As a consequence, the only way out for schools in the townships is to rely on organizations like READ for some time to come, if they are not to remain completely deprived of books.
The IPET document (Centre for Education Policy Development 1994) recommended that READ should service all the nine provinces of South Africa by offering fully designed training programmes, including the train-the-trainer programme.
READ is negotiating with various education departments to use its programme to assist the implementation of Curriculum 2005.
Evaluation findings
A report, based on a survey of pupils participating in READ's programmes on reading and writing skills, drew a number of important conclusions (Le Roux and Schollar 1996: 18-22). Some of these are reported below.
· the findings point out the dire need for attention to be paid to the reading skills of black pupils;· The READ schools are very clearly ahead of their counterparts in the control schools in terms of reading and writing - the READ schools outperformed their control school counterparts by between 189% in Std 3, 151% in Std 4 and 104% in Std 5 (Le Roux and Schollar 1996: 20). Pupils in READ schools have accelerated their language proficiency skills by up to two years. In terms of their reading scores they are ahead by 18 months whilst in terms of writing scores they are over two years ahead at the same stage;
· there are major differences (over 60% on average) between the urban schools and the rural schools in terms of pupils' reading performance which READ (1996: 18) attributes to lack of exposure of the rural farm school children to books, newspapers, magazines, television, radio and various other forms of communicative media in English;
· the selection of reading materials is a vital and critical element in the process. South African children, especially those in the deep rural areas, have special needs and requirements. There needs to be a definite focus on those needs when it comes to the selection and writing of materials suitable for South African conditions;
· the role of the teacher in a book-based approach cannot be overestimated. The most successful schools visited were those with enthusiastic, motivated and committed teachers who had received good in-service training and back-up;
· READ schools participate voluntarily, without any 'formal' recognition or incentives. [The conclusion was that] with the incentive of formal recognition and accreditation from the relevant educational authorities, teachers would be even more motivated to apply the underlying theories and philosophies of a book-based approach to learning English;
The information on classroom libraries, provided to primary schools, has also been gleaned from READ annual reports and a paper which was presented by Mrs Cynthia Hugo, the National Director, at a conference5 in which she described this model.
What is a classroom library?
READ's initial classroom library provision is a selection of about 60 books, consisting of exciting and colourful fiction books appropriate to the child's reading and interest level, non-fiction books closely related to topics on the curriculum (to help the teacher in lesson preparation) and a few reference books such as dictionaries and an atlas (Hugo 1996: 89). These resources are placed in a strong, lockable, portable wooden box which functions both as a storage container and a display cabinet. However any kind of display unit or a library comer could be equally functional. Innovative story-board and poster materials have also been designed to be used together with the classroom collections. In addition, READ has arranged sponsorship for these collections, developed and run training programmes (to show the teacher how to use books to make lesson content more interesting) for schools in which their boxes are placed (Hugo 1996: 89). Usually the collection is on loan to the teacher from a more central depot/collection which is normally off school premises and materials have to be returned and replenished each term or each month, in order to meet the new curriculum needs of the learners and the teacher (S.A. DoE 1997b: 35). The materials are required to be kept in the classroom and managed by the teacher so as to be as accessible as possible for easy use in the present situation, in which often neither the teacher nor the learner are accustomed to using resources (Hugo 1996: 87). The box is placed where learners, particularly primary school learners, can browse through the books in between other class activities and use them freely. READ has successfully piloted this model in many schools across South Africa. A READ classroom library, as estimated during the NEPI policy exercise, cost R1.335.50 (US$313.50) in 1995, excluding training and delivery costs, with about 15 boxes being required per primary school (Bawa 1996: 239). Thus the cost per school, excluding training and delivery costs, would be in the region of R20.032.50 (US$4,702.50).
The purposes or objectives of READ's classroom libraries are:
· to provide learning resources for teachers coupled with training programmes to show the teacher how to use books to make content lesson teaching more interesting;· to provide resources for learners to use;
· to enable teachers to move away from the 'tyranny' of textbooks and demonstrate to learners that facts can come from more than one source;
· to enable teachers to demonstrate to learners how knowledge is selected, presented and interpreted in different sources thus leading learners to develop critical thinking and appraisal skills;
· to prepare learners for visits to a central school library or community library through being introduced to book organization and classification, which are essential skills to their future independent study and research skills; classroom libraries should in no way replace the school library but should be seen as a first step towards it;
· to ensure that a reading culture flourishes;
· to add colour and a centre of interest to the classroom (Hugo 1996: 89).
The stakeholders of classroom libraries are the same as READ stakeholders. They are: the READ Trust, the private companies who fund these libraries, elected regional committees which represent the communities, the Board of Trustees, the Development Board, the National Executive, the National Committee, as well as the benefactors, that is, the Department of Education, the schools, principals and teachers who run these libraries.
How classroom libraries are used
Children are first encouraged to use the classroom library by choosing their books for the silent reading lesson. Later they are encouraged to read books in free periods when the teacher is called out of the classroom, when some learners finish a task more quickly than others and after school hours. When learners have learned proper care of books, they are encouraged to take books home and share them with other members of the family. The books, which are selected are at the right level of reading, are aimed at encouraging the teacher and learners to make time for reading, as well as adding colour and a centre of interest to the classroom. Learners must be free to choose the books they read and must be allowed to handle them freely. When they reach the stage at which they need to read for information, the classroom library provides teachers with a gentle way of introducing learners to finding and using books on a particular topic.
Why the classroom library?
It is important to understand the reasoning behind the launching of classroom libraries by READ.
READ noted the bleakness of many classrooms and how the teachers' ability to teach creatively was severely hampered by a lack of resources as well as a need for more professional training (READ 1994: 3). Correspondingly, Hugo (in READ 1994: 10) noted that bleak, under-resourced classrooms could not become 'sites for learning' and that reliance on the textbook alone would continue the practice of rote-learning and teaching. The poor classroom, according to READ (1994), is characterized by a lack of books, teaching aids, visual stimulus; rote learning; a teacher who often lacks confidence; pupils who need greater stimulation; and an atmosphere of rigid discipline; - all characteristic of black schools.
It thus became READ's aim to transform as many classrooms as they could into the 'READ classroom' where teacher and pupils have the best possible opportunity to make education a positive experience (READ 1994: 3). The classroom transformation begins with this 'box library'. To develop the skills of independent reading, team work, peer learning and leadership, READ (1994: 4) have changed the arrangement of desks from rigid rows facing the teacher to group arrangements, a situation which they believe makes teaching large classes more manageable.
Hugo (in READ 1994: 10) maintained that, on the whole, the classrooms of teachers trained by READ provide a more stimulating environment. This fulfils a requirement proposed by Ray (1994: 8), that is, an improvement of the library image through changes to the physical appearance, the general atmosphere and environment.
Arguments in support of the classroom library model
Hugo (1996: 89) made the observation that most South African children come from homes where very little reading takes place, where there are no books and a reading culture is not understood. A weak book culture and lack of reading in the home has a negative effect on the whole of a child's learning. She thus advised that the most efficient way to compensate for this is to provide children with an intimate and pleasurable knowledge of books. This can be facilitated by providing classroom libraries in all classes and by training every primary school teacher to introduce his/her pupils to books as an integral part of their learning and leisure experience (Hugo 1996: 90). This was supported by Gibbs (1985: 310) when she argued that it is important for pupils to be surrounded by books, particularly if this is unlikely at home. Schonell (1961: 195) confirmed this by claiming that:
'the class library has the great advantage that it is on hand every hour of the school day... teachers can make use of it during lessons by taking books to illustrate particular points, and can lead children to make use of books for many lessons during the school week. Queries raised and problems posed may be dealt with by teacher and pupil acting together at the exact time the need arises... is certainly the most effective means of training children in the use of books' (Schonell: 1961: 201).
Adams and Pearce argued that the class library can be used by the teacher
'to (saturate) pupils with books: books to read, to look at, to get information from; childish books to revert to... books which should be on desks, tables and display racks, not in cupboards or hidden among neatly arranged ranks of undisturbed library books' (Adams and Pearce: 1974: 69).
Hugo (1996: 89) asserted that the very presence of book resources within the classroom means that books and book-related learning are integrated into the learner's classroom experience from the first grade. Bane and Mwamwenda (1994: 129) had advised that every effort should be made to provide classrooms with an adequate number and type of culturally appropriate instructional materials. This was supported by Hugo (1996: 87) in her assertion that the quality of education in a classroom is, to a large extent, dependent on an adequate supply of appropriate resources to make learner-centred teaching and independent learning possible. She declared that without resources, reliance on the textbook is usually the norm and rote learning is more likely to continue to be common practice.
The greatest strength and advantage of this model is perhaps the close and constant proximity that learners have throughout the school day to a set of appropriate learning resources (S.A. DoE 1997b: 36). Further, although the school is not able to build up and invest in its own library collection, educators and learners benefit by having access to a collection which is constantly replenished with the very latest publications and productions, selected by professional staff. Another great advantage raised (S.A. DoE 1997b: 36) is that implementation of this library model does not require the school to have a post for a professional teacher-librarian. Instead, one teacher needs to perform a co-ordinating role and each teacher should attend in-service training on how to use the classroom library effectively in lessons. This is most important at a time in South Africa when posts for teacher-librarians are being taken away and given to teachers or when teacher-librarians are being given full or heavy teaching loads (Bawa 1996).
In support of classroom libraries, Gibbs (1985: 310) argued that most primary schools do have classroom collections (although this is unfortunately not the case in South African schools) and many teachers would be extremely loathe to centralize these materials. This is because one can never guarantee that the materials will be available when they are needed. (She then refuted this argument stating that if there is a whole-school policy (i.e. a centralized school library) everyone should know well in advance what everyone else is doing.) Gibbs (1985: 310) further claimed that in classroom libraries resources are always, and immediately, accessible to pupils; the teacher can control the resources - important for younger primary children who may be overwhelmed by a central collection if they have yet to learn the skills of location and selection.
Arguments against classroom libraries
The arguments forwarded by Gibbs (1985: 310) against classroom libraries, and in support of the central library are that:
· it makes for economic use of resources;· it provides a wider range of materials for pupils to select from and therefore, in theory, improves their skills in selecting relevant information;
· it teaches pupils to use a large collection (as compared to a classroom library), which is important if they are to use secondary school and other libraries competently later on;
· it provides a quiet study area - this is one of the library's functions although it should not be its main one.
Francis (1989: 13) is against classroom collections on the bases that they present a strong potential for duplication. She claimed that as children move up a year they might be pleased to find old favourites, but disappointed to see familiar titles they have read already, or passed over as not to their taste. She claimed that people who make these selections are not always at the chalk face and thus do not always know what children are actually reading. The discussion document (S.A. DoE 1997b: 35) based occasional negative perceptions of this model on the fact that because the classroom library was only offered in African schools, it was, therefore, perceived to be a cheap compromise in providing African learners with some half-hearted form of library provision.
Choice of methodology and rationale
The method used to collect data for this study was the focus group discussion. A sample of 29 primary school teachers and three leader-teachers were surveyed on their experiences in running READ's classroom libraries and in using them to offer resource-based programmes using the materials in the libraries. Some information was also received from two READ library advisers.
Focus group interviewing has been identified as the best and a cheap and quick method of research for collecting qualitative data (Kamfer 1989: 7; Day 1991: 389; Widdows, Hensler and Wyncott 1991: 352; Oberg and Easton 1995: 119). The timing of the study coincided with school examinations, a time that is not suitable for involving teachers in additional activities. Not more than two hours of their time on one day was required for the study and this resulted in a very good response rate.
The strength of the focus group lies in providing an opportunity for probing and clarification. This characteristic proved an asset to this study whose objective was to assess a tribute as elusive as 'effectiveness'. The mailed questionnaire method would have been expensive and unreliable since the South African postal system is currently known for its problems. Also this method has many possible potential problems such as the 'no return' phenomenon which the researcher experienced in a previous study (Radebe 1997) and which is well reported in the literature too. Furthermore, many people tend to complete questionnaires as a matter of duty and simply tick and move on, skipping questions which require in-depth responses.
The phenomenon of participants building on one another's comments (snowballing), as described by Kamfer (1989: 8) and Oberg and Easton (1995: 119) was another attraction of focus group discussion to the researcher.
Sample
Although the READ classroom libraries function around the whole of South Africa, the study focused only on three districts within the Pietermaritzburg Region of KwaZulu-Natal Province. This was due to costs as well as time constraints. The three districts surveyed in the study are the Midlands, Pietermaritzburg and Umvoti Districts, as designated by the Provincial Education Department.
Originally only Grade 5 teachers were to be involved in the study. However, after the pilot study, it became apparent that restricting the study to this group of teachers would not be profitable since developmental stage changes in pupils do not follow a pattern which allows surveying one level only. These potentially impacted on the way teachers would be able to comment on and discuss issues, thus enabling the researcher to establish trends in their responses. Therefore, the population of the study was primary school teachers who were running classroom libraries and who had been trained, irrespective of the level of grade they taught. The three leader-teachers (one from each district) were also surveyed, separately from the teachers, on their experiences. This was because, whilst they are leader-teachers, they are also running their own classroom libraries. The three library advisers (one from each of the three districts) also provided information through letters on their experiences, especially relating to the training of teachers and principals and on their experiences at the schools. Their observations were useful.
After securing permission from the READ National Director, Mrs Cynthia Hugo, to evaluate the READ classroom library, the composite list of schools working with READ in the Pietermaritzburg Region was supplied by the READ office in Durban. With the help of library advisers, the researcher separated the schools into the three regions as run by READ. The sampling was done with the help of the three READ library advisers who advised the researcher about which schools were functioning and which were not functioning in terms of READ library programmes, (the aim being to get a mix of the two), and which would be accessible in terms of distance and the possibility of roads. This process produced a sampling frame of 79 schools from which 40 were selected. Only one teacher from each school could be invited to keep numbers in line with the guidelines for a focus group discussion, which limit numbers to between 7-8 (minimum) and 10-12 (maximum) people per group (Kamfer 1989: 7; Day 1991: 389; Widdows, Hensler and Wyncott 1991: 352; Oberg and Easton 1995: 119). The researcher wrote letters to the teachers requesting their participation. In all three regions the leader-teachers distributed letters on behalf of the researcher and helped in organizing the meetings. In total, 29 teachers from all three regions participated in the group discussions, giving a 73% response. The 29 teachers who participated (7, 9, and 13 from each of the 3 districts) were all from schools which were functioning. Those from the schools where the classroom libraries were not put to maximum use did not come to the discussions.
Data collection and analysis
A semi-structured interview framework was designed by the researcher. This framework was used in the pilot study and adapted accordingly thereafter. The instrument (framework) was divided, informally, into sections which addressed different but related aspects of the issues under discussion. The indicators addressed, reflected in the questions asked, included some which are reflected in the objectives of classroom libraries as given by READ and listed earlier. These objectives identify skills which are supposed to be inculcated in learners through the use of classroom libraries. In those cases objective-related research questions were generated, in line with an assertion by Tameem (1992: 16).
The first section of the instrument was thus aimed at addressing the issue of provision and availability which led to the indicators of availability, accessibility, and sufficiency. The second section addressed relevance including materials selection, the curriculum, sufficiency of numbers of books and type of materials. The third section of the instrument addressed the issue of staff training, including follow-up sessions. The fourth section addressed impact, which covered independence in accessing of library, independence in selecting materials, inculcation of analytical and critical thinking skills (deciphering and challenging of differing viewpoints, formulating their own arguments and drawing conclusions) and reading skills. This limited the number of questions to 21. Although this exceeded the suggested 14 to 15 pre-determined questions arranged in a logical order (Oberg and Easton 1995: 119), 21 questions were manageable.
To make the participants relax and to provide a familiar and non-intimidating environment as suggested by Kamfer (1989: 8) and Day (1993: 389), the researcher involved the participants in deciding how the room should be arranged. Tea was offered whilst the researcher welcomed the participants and thanked them for their time. After introductions the purpose and objectives of the study were explained and placed in the context of the broader South African education. This procedure was followed with all groups as suggested by Kamfer (1989: 9). Permission to record the discussion was requested whilst personal confidentiality was guaranteed as advised by both Kamfer (1989: 9) and Tameem (1992: 16).
Group discussions lasted for an hour and a half to an hour and three quarters each, which corresponds with Day's suggestion (1993: 390) that a focus group discussion lasts one to one and a half hours only.
The intention was to collect both qualitative and quantitative data but since there was always an overwhelming agreement on issues, quantity was not an issue (no need for frequency counts). The researcher regarded differing on an issue from the groups by one or two people as 'rare event' data and did not report on it unless the comment was of particular importance, as advised by Widdows, Hensler and Wyncott (1991: 355). The group's responses were summarized to determine the extent of agreement.
Participants were encouraged to build on one another's insights, a process viewed by Oberg and Easton (1995: 119) as offering participants security, encouragement, excitement and stimulation to participate in a group discussion and to make further comments on discussions initiated by their colleagues.
The researcher's status as external evaluator who was not involved personally with READ enabled the participants to relax and 'pour their hearts out' about their experiences with the libraries. The fact that they did not know the researcher's attitude to the organization is likely to have dissuaded them from either aiming to appease or to displease the facilitator with false responses. A measure of genuineness/authenticity was ensured by this factor.
The first step after all discussions was transmission of data of each section from audio-tapes and written notes. The researcher did a contents analysis after organizing comments by topic and editing them in sequential order until broad themes emerged, a procedure which was suggested by Kamfer (1989: 8) and Widdows, Hensler and Wyncott (1991: 355).
Problems
A major weakness of focus groups, to which the researcher cannot attest from this study, is that data obtained cannot be easily generalized to the larger population (Widdows, Hensler and Wyncott (1991: 352).
The first limitation in the present study was that only the 'good' teachers turned up for the discussions, although that in itself confirmed a problem which was raised by all participants, leader-teachers and library advisers, that is lack of commitment by many teachers.
The aim of the study was to evaluate classroom libraries for effectiveness and cost effectiveness. A few comments on these indicators are necessary to put another major limitation in perspective. Effectiveness of classroom libraries is not a straight forward phenomenon and it was difficult to measure in this study. This corresponds with major conclusions which Van House and Childers (1993: 1) drew from some research, firstly that effectiveness (which they view as an enigma) is a multi-dimensional construct, meaning that no single measure of effectiveness is sufficient to describe an organization. Secondly, no single definition of organizational effectiveness will suffice. In this study, trying to establish in practical reality, the best approach and the best indicators for measuring effectiveness of classroom libraries, was no easy matter!
Measuring cost effectiveness was another difficulty. To address this indicator, the researcher has commented on her observations and reported on comments relating to cost effectiveness, made in the literature as well as by READ staff.
In this section teachers who participated in the discussions are referred to as participants6, whereas leader-teachers and library advisers are referred to as such.
Availability of materials
Size and sufficiency
All participants agreed that at the time of the survey their libraries contained more than the 60 items first supplied; in some instances they were double the original size. This was due to the fact that, although they were allowed to exchange libraries with READ, these libraries were in fact never returned to the organization. There was a measure of flexibility on the issue which enabled READ to deal with schools on an individual basis. Instead the classroom library had been increased through additions, with exchanges only between classes within the same schools. The average class size was ± 35 (up to 40); in eight cases two classes shared a room, resulting in a class size of 70.
The general feeling was that the original 60 items had been sufficient for the number of pupils. When two participants from one district expressed a need for duplication of non-fiction titles, other participants reminded them that the non-fiction in the classroom libraries was not meant to replace textbooks. (A number of people have argued against the use of any library as a storeroom for textbooks.)
Size of a collection cannot alone determine its quality, as it says nothing about the content or condition of the items (Doll 1997: 95). The age of the collection is suggested as one possible measure of quality, that is, how the materials in the library keep up to date with curriculum changes. Since READ materials are curriculum-based, are produced by READ themselves in response to identified needs and their programmes are reportedly ahead of Curriculum 2005, good quality is assured. Facilities to replenish or enlarge the library are easily available - it is a matter of a telephone call to the adviser and if available the materials are delivered. Participants reported that the decision to enlarge or exchange is an internal school's arrangement. Once a pack has been exhausted they are permitted to exchange for different ones if necessary.
Although the participants and leader-teachers were generally happy with the materials, even so they expressed a need for more and different books around the middle of the year. They all agreed that the need for more was not a reflection of insufficiency on the part of the READ library but rather a reflection of 'greed for more' on their part and that of the pupils, which had been aroused in them by READ. One of the participants stated that, 'as with anything one enjoys in life, one starts noticing and hunting for more books'. They claimed that READ has trained them to be active, instilled an inquisitiveness in them which makes them always look for more, which they are also fostering in their pupils.
Need to access other collections
To satisfy this 'greed' and generally to support the curriculum, participants expressed the need to access other libraries in town. The other libraries they access for all types of materials, including fiction, non-fiction and reference, are the Natal Society Public Library, the Teachers' Education Library and the Tembaletu Community Resources Centre. The necessity for teachers to access information sources from beyond the school is well supported in the literature.
Kuhlthau identifies access to outside sources through technology as one of the elements of success in the implementation of the process approach to information skills (1993: 16). One would argue that a resource-based education is one process approach to information skills. In providing a variety of materials to create an environment of critical examination of information, Callison suggested that emphasis may need to be placed on acquiring special index resources that in turn lead to a greater use of interlibrary loan. At the same time greater contact with resources, beyond the school, through the community networks maintained by the school library media specialist must be advocated (Callison 1994:49). A consultant for READ suggested that local libraries should be requested to make available copies of the recommended books as a further source of information for students (Brindley 1991: 60). And such networks are nurtured by READ teachers.
All participants agreed that the classroom library was not sufficient for teaching all library skills to both pupils and teachers. Some claimed that what was lacking was only experience of a big library as well as exposure to the 'technical' side of library procedures. To solve this problem, six participants who teach in Pietermaritzburg have entered into a formal arrangement with the Natal Society Public Library. According to them this has been due to the fact that READ has trained them to be enterprising and to network. Through this arrangement the teachers occasionally take pupils to the library to do block borrowings and take the materials back to their schools to enrich their classroom libraries. At the public library the pupils are put through the mundane library procedure of registering, getting cards, selecting materials and taking them out, for instance. Through this process pupils learn these library practices. By this time they are already acquainted with the organization and classification of the materials in their classroom libraries and thus understand the sequence and the purpose of the bigger library.
One group suggested the institution of exchanges amongst schools as a way of accessing other collections. This is because their relationships with READ started at different times and therefore makes some of them 'old' and others 'new' in terms of their association with READ. The general feeling was that both groups, the 'old' and the 'new', would benefit from exchanges amongst schools. The 'old' schools would send their old books to the 'new' schools which would then get to enjoy those books which might be regarded as 'classics'. The 'old' schools would get access to new books as they often get envious of the 'new' schools when they receive new and more attractive materials.
All participants expressed a need for replenishing on a yearly basis which would require support of the education department to address the problem of funding.
Accessibility of materials
Opening hours
Apart from one school, which only allowed pupils to access the classroom library once a week, the rest said there were no restrictions - it all depended on the situation in each class. They all concluded that the number of times the library can be accessed at one sitting is an internal class arrangement. Generally, once pupils had completed projects they were free to access the classroom library. The only restrictions are those instituted in order to maintain some order especially where schools were running combined classes (Grades 1 and 2) in one room, at the same time.
Some participants in one district reported how in their schools they had collapsed a number of classroom libraries into one central library, but also continued to run their classroom libraries. Each class spends a formal library period in the central library once a week, with free access to the classroom libraries. On Fridays everyone is free to visit the central library. Outside of class activities they are free to access libraries before school assembly, during breaks and after school to encourage them to regard a visit to the library as a leisure activity like any play activity. Teachers had concluded that free access was rewarding to the child and so some had trained the pupils to 'grab a book when idle' and that 'the best friend you can ever have is a book'. Some had made bookmarks out of those slogans. This corresponds with Baker's report (1994: 136) about a teacher at Walter Teka School in Greater Cape Town (a READ school), who has also created a central library putting all the books from the standard 5 (i.e. Grade 7) boxes into her classroom, making it both a English subject specialist room and a place where children can read whenever they have a chance. There was no formal system for borrowing books, but children could take books home by arrangement with the teacher.
The general observation from the participants was that the teacher's role and attitude to the library was crucial in maximizing access.
Loans
One school reported that it did not allow pupils to take books home for fear of them getting destroyed. (This was the same school which allowed access only once a week.) But all the other participants agreed that, initially, pupils were allowed one item at a time but then it depended on the individual pupil's reading speed and performance.
All participants and leader-teachers reported that Friday is a special day on which pupils are allowed to take out as many books as possible depending on availability. This is when fast readers tend to be restricted by having to wait for books to be returned. It had become normal practice for teachers in such situations to borrow from other classes, especially from those whose books 'lie covered in dust', when they ran out of materials for fast readers. This is done in an attempt to avoid holding back those pupils. In one school they also borrow from higher classes for higher functioning pupils, as well as encourage pupils to use the local community library or the public library in town.
Baker (1994: 136) made similar observations during her study, that is, there are schools in Cape Town who work with READ where books remain inside their boxes, hardly touched. One of the reasons for this is teachers' anxiety about children losing or spoiling the books in which case some teachers opt to keep books safe rather than use them. She also reported on keen readers in the class who go through the books that interest them quickly.
All the participants who allow pupils to take books home reported that they have stopped allowing this for pupils in Grades 1 and 2. From their experiences they concluded that from Grade 3 pupils knew how to be responsible for the books at home and understood why they had to return them, even if the parents were not involved. This must be seen in the light of majority of parents in the rural areas being illiterate and not bothering to take care of books. This appears to further confirm teachers' anxiety, referred to by Baker, about books getting lost or spoilt.
All the participants reported that they had been trained to devise their own ways of controlling the stock. Schools which had previously belonged to the DET had been supplied with control cards when the department attempted to address provision of libraries. They thus used cards until they ran out and then started devising their own system. The majority of schools had simply prepared special books in which pupils record their own issues and returns reflecting name, title of book and date. Class library monitors are also trained to monitor the situation.
From their observations, the participants concluded that the learners were satisfied with the amount of time they were allowed with the books. A lot of flexibility was reported in a number of situations, which allowed teachers to respond to individual needs in terms of time. This is important since learners, who respond as individuals, are free to exchange books as they need to. According to participants and leader-teachers, learners do plead for extensions of time with the books. As indicated earlier, the more the pupils get acquainted with reading the more they become greedy - they can never have enough!
Training of teachers
The national training workshop for leader-teachers is run every year by READ trainers at READ headquarters in Braamfontein, Johannesburg. The training of teachers is done by the leader-teachers locally under the supervision of, and with, the library advisers. Library advisers and leader-teachers work as a team.
Leader-teachers reported that there are as many sessions as are needed for teachers and as it is possible to provide. All leader-teachers, supported by participants, reported a flexibility in organizing in service-training sessions - sometimes it is a matter of a telephone call to the adviser or a meeting in town occasionally to solve a problem.
Support of principals, etc.
Support from the top for READ's training workshops was reported as crucial. All participants, backed by library advisers, agreed that the biggest problem was lack of support from principals. Where principals are supportive things tend to go more smoothly than where the opposite prevails. In the latter situation, the 'absent' teacher's class might have to stay away from school if their teacher is attending a workshop. In some instances some principals insist on teachers taking a day's leave to attend a workshop or some training. In some farm schools, problems are posed by farm managers who do not understand the occasional absence of teachers from school to attend workshops for the benefit of the pupils. Teachers are often forced to fund their own travelling costs to get to workshops (a problem when they live far from town), because many principals believe that it is to their own gain.
One library adviser reported that the group of teachers most reluctant to allow learners the freedom to use books effectively are the men teaching higher primary classes, who are often principals; they have come to regard them as their greatest challenge. Their lack of interest was confirmed by the minimum representation of males in the focus groups in the study.
Kuhlthau identified the issue of the principal showing considerable interest in the project as another underlying principle for success in implementing a process approach to information skills. She claimed that, in her study, the assistant principal of the school responsible for scheduling gave the project credence by conducting required formal observations of teachers and library media specialist as they worked with students, and showing the students the importance of the project by talking to them about their work as he believed his role was to 'show a little bit of interest'. The administrators provided the climate for teaming, the time for planning, and promoted, recognized and rewarded those involved in the process approach (Kuhlthau 1993: 16). This was in line with Gibbs' assertion (1985: 310) that in any school it is crucial to have the support of the head teacher if the library is to be seen as important.
At the same time, the participants and leader-teachers admitted that, although some principals are certainly responsible for this calamity, in some instances they are used as scapegoats and the teachers are in fact the culprits. Leader-teachers reported frustration at teachers' passivity, which the participants equated with a negative attitude held by some of their colleagues.
Interpersonal relations
Good interpersonal relations were appreciated by all participants, leader-teachers and library advisers. READ library advisers were commended by all participants and leader-teachers for their acknowledgement of teachers' innovations and suggestions and for treating them with respect and dignity. It is evident that co-operating with READ was always rewarding, according to all participants and leader-teachers. This co-operation was stressed by a library adviser as very important - agreeing that teachers co-operate well by attending workshops and training. The fact that travelling costs are borne by individual teachers confirms their commitment and co-operation and indicates trust between READ and teachers that their goal is common, that is, excellence for pupils. One library adviser emphasized the importance of good personal relationships with teachers commending Eskom for providing funding which has allowed her to work in the area long enough to build up good personal relations and to gain the trust of the principals and staff.
The necessity for genuine mutual respect and appreciation, as contributing members of the instructional team, for the successful implementation of a process approach to information skills, has been stressed by various writers. Success factors in teaching information skills are said to be: a strong team approach to instruction with administrators playing an integral role; and members of the instructional team exhibiting respect for one another (Kuhlthau 1993: 16; Tastad and Collins 1997: 167).
Training problems
All participants agreed that there were no problems with training from the side of READ. Two participants from one district reported sometimes experiencing problems with implementation of what had been learnt. They added that sometimes they were given too many goals and less specific objectives to be achieved. Co incidentally the leader-teacher of the two complainants reported that the number of objectives was sufficient but problems arose out of teachers' inconsistency in attending follow-up workshops and sessions where many objectives are clarified. He was supported in this view by the other leader-teachers. This was also stressed by one library adviser who mentioned that problems related to implementation emanated from the teachers' missing of follow-up visits and meetings at which things are further explained and clarified. One library adviser remarked that keen teachers arrive early whilst those who come late usually end up not grasping what was imparted and then experiencing problems with implementation.
The idea of follow-up workshops was supported by Markless (1986: 22) when he urged for effective professional development which could be through giving clear frameworks, practical examples of alternative classroom approaches and follow-through which involves help given after initial training, through informal channels and through the creation of specific opportunities for discussion, evaluation and the sharing of problems. With professional development in place, reflective professionals who formed the instructional team could, as those in Kuhlthau's study (1993: 17) use their competence and expertise to design, assess, and redesign the process program; as in Kuhlthau's study, they might also be willing to let go of old ways of doing things, and take the risk of trying something new, and be willing to accept the extra work involved.
In relation to the foregoing point, leader-teachers and participants complained that many teachers resist new teaching methods and are set in teacher-centred teaching and in perpetuating rote learning. Library advisers reported that, whilst individual teachers have been converted to the success of getting their pupils 'hooked' on reading and use of books and drama as an important part of classroom activity, other teachers in the same school might have reservations about departing from traditional, more prescriptive methods of teaching and use classroom libraries with reluctance and occasionally hardly at all. This, according to leader-teachers, results in precious materials remaining covered in dust from lack of use.
This corresponds with Tastad and Collins's conclusion (1997: 169) from their study in which they tried to get teachers to use the writing centre, that it was more difficult to serve the middle-school curriculum teachers because the middle-school curriculum was not process oriented. Assignments were teacher-directed and the middle school teachers did not understand the role of the writing centre. Growing resistance by the teachers was reported. These researchers believe that their efforts failed because the middle-school teachers did not embrace a process approach to teaching and learning.
In the context of classroom libraries, it might pay dividends to follow Kuhlthau's advice (1993: 16) and appoint a co-ordinator to articulate the goals and set the philosophical framework for the use of classroom libraries in resource-based teaching, explaining to the team how the approach fits into the curriculum and is tied to the school goals and objectives.
Classroom libraries and the education system
All participants concurred that, at every workshop, the objectives of classroom libraries are identified, explained and used as guidelines. They are also linked to the skills libraries are aimed at inculcating. At the end of every session, there is evaluation to establish whether or not they have been achieved. They all agreed that evaluation is a very strong element in the successful running of classroom libraries.
Both the participants and leader-teachers agreed with library advisers that there is no conflict between the objectives of classroom libraries and those of the Department of Education. In the old dispensation, participants and leader-teachers reported that they had experienced a conflict when the education department emphasized written work and completion of the syllabus, whereas READ emphasized reading and speaking. READ's philosophy corresponds well with outcomes-based education (OBE). It's flexible approach to the changes in education had allowed it to fully support the new OBE and Curriculum 2005. Participants and leader-teachers concluded that READ's classroom library objectives have always been clear, enriching (aimed at giving the child independence in a lot of skills) and are therefore complementary to those of the Education Department, although the programme was not called OBE.
Full support from the national Department of Education was reported by all participants and leader-teachers. One library adviser explained that the support given to READ's work in training and workshops seems to depend largely on the attitude of the Circuit Inspector or the superintendent, further reporting that the attitude of these officials had been entirely positive, with encouragement and invitations to extend READ's work into more schools, which financial constraints have made difficult.
User satisfaction
Selection of materials
All participants reported that materials' selection is done by the READ library advisers, a process in which teachers are not involved. A few participants from two districts felt that they should be involved, as they are the ones working with the libraries and who understand the pupils. The majority disagreed, reminding the complainants that they could not really expect to be brought into the process because READ was only helping out, and READ's selectors were trained to do this specialized job. They felt that such demands should rather be made on their Department of Education. They also asserted that their non-involvement in materials selection was not a problem since it was easy for them to send materials back if they were not satisfied with their relevance. Leader-teachers explained that READ does involve them by seeking their advice on the issue. This system works as they have been trained to appreciate the role and importance of book selection and have been taught how it is done.
Relevance - non-fiction
All participants agreed that the non-fiction materials, which they viewed as a valuable asset in their libraries, support the curriculum. All subjects (including science which the teachers are very excited about!) are represented sometimes all in one book because of 'theme teaching' across the curriculum. In some instances they do not need to use set textbooks because the non-fiction in the class libraries is very good and relevant, that being ensured by the fact that READ develops its own non-fiction (and even fiction) which supports various subjects. The materials are more interesting to use by both teachers and pupils than the set textbooks because they are colourful and up to date and appropriate to levels.
Participants indicated that the number of copies provided poses a problem where a book serves the purpose of a textbook. To address that problem, many teachers have established relations with previously advantaged schools in the city who have made their duplicating facilities available to them. Again, recognition should go to READ for equipping them with networking and enterprising skills.
Relevance - fiction
READ's selection policy has been in many ways a policy of redress, in terms of both supplying books to the deprived, and in terms of trying to choose books that are relevant to the lives of black children. Selectors tried to move away from the Eurocentric books often found in South African schools generally. They sought out books with black characters and local settings (Baker 1994: 136).
Many participants from all 3 groups reported that they themselves had decreased the number of books depicting the rural African context because from their observations pupils displayed no more, or particular, interest in them than in those with European and American contexts. Therefore, giving books with rural African contexts more focus was not necessary even for rural children. Their argument was that rural children would not necessarily live out their lives as rural adults. They further argued that rural children would attend tertiary institutions with urban children and would not enjoy being treated at that level as a special species that has not been exposed, through books, to a variety of situations.
Participants also emphasized that for South African children, it is important to include white people, Indians, towns, town houses, mud houses, the beach, etc., because they all form part of the South African environment. Participants and leader-teachers claimed that sometimes books about white people are approved of and enjoyed by the pupils more than those which supposedly represent black people.
The participants and leader-teachers felt strongly about the issue of westernization. The general feeling amongst them was that black people, like all other races, cannot run away from westernization. Neither can they reject westernization because that is the way they live and have lived since they were born, without necessarily avoiding their traditions. One stated that, 'a so-called western way of life is the only way many of us know and that does not mean that we are rejecting African traditions. We are surviving in the world not only in South Africa'.
Other writers have written about the danger of restricting the background of fiction to what is known. Rural children have dreams and aspirations which are varied and they need to have their imagination nurtured through exposure to a variety of settings. The importance for them being given the opportunity to escape their surroundings even if only in fantasy, like any other child, cannot be over-emphasized (Radebe 1996a: 192-193; Leeb 1990: 30) The attitude today is to help them nurture their 'global' dreams. It was 'normal' in the past to feed rural children a rural education to perpetuate the availability of labour on farms, a practice which is being discouraged in the present atmosphere of transformation.
On the issue of context and familiarity of settings, the socio-cultural background in books has very little to do with their popularity with children (Radebe 1995: 124; Robinson and Weintraub 1973; Tucker 1981; Diakiw 1990; Bennett 1991). Hurst (1993) used African and European traditional folk tales in her study to test (with racially-mixed classes of children around Durban in South Africa) the idea that children respond best (or only) to stories set within their cultural milieu. She concluded from the children's responses that the cultural origin of the story had no relative effect on enjoyment of the story.
Baker (1994) relates a similar scenario. Children from the afore-mentioned Walter Teka School were taken to a book shop and asked to select books for their classmates and to talk about their personal reading preferences. What they enjoyed most were adventure stories. Although they did not reject local books, they were adamant that the setting of a book was not important, the story was. They also claimed that the colour of the characters was irrelevant. Related to this point is the one raised by Brindley, a consultant for READ, who concluded from one of his research projects into black students' reading preferences, that whether the book is written by a black writer is less important than whether the story is enjoyable, relevant and easy to understand (Brindley 1991: 59). Baker warned that in attempting to find relevant local books, selectors may be offering a narrower range than children want, claiming that texts are multi-voiced, and can appeal to different children on different levels.
Perhaps as a result of and in response to all this research on pupils' reading needs and preferences, READ appears to be moving away from their earlier selection policy of favouring books with black characters and local settings and moving to the provision of books with mixed settings.
Of all the fiction in the classroom libraries, picture books are the most popular materials especially for younger pupils because of their attractive colours and illustrations.
Pupils' satisfaction
Participants agreed that pupils were satisfied with the materials, a factor which became evident from their involvement with the materials. Both fiction and non-fiction were thoroughly enjoyed by pupils, especially the fiction and other genres such as drama, choral verse and rhymes, which the participants and leader-teachers claim are valuable for teaching language skills. The reported involvement resulted in improvement in their reading, learning and writing skills, in presentation, vocabulary, expression and in the confidence and the sense of achievement and pride pupils display when they do well.
Support in running classroom libraries
Regarding this issue, participants concurred that READ's help and support is 'just a telephone call away'. Support is also available from colleagues - more recognition to READ for nurturing the team spirit.
Markless (1986: 21) stressed the need for support which becomes even more pressing as there is no universal solution to the problem of developing successful learners and no generally applicable blueprint for the implementation of information skills in all classrooms and libraries and across all subjects. She stressed that it is not possible to recommend one course or a set of practices that will solve students' learning problems. She therefore proposed collaboration to set up a variety of experiences across the curriculum which will help students learn how to learn. READ offers this sort of support.
Impact on pupil skills
Two assertions pervaded all the responses about the impact of the classroom libraries on pupils' abilities to use books:
· all participants and leader-teachers agreed that each teacher's creativity and ability to manipulate materials to suit each subject is crucial in the use of the classroom library. This is in addition to the commitment, performance, activeness and liveliness of the teacher. In one participant's words, 'the size, richness and use of the library by pupils reflects the amount of work the teacher puts in'. They emphasized that the role played by the teacher determines the extent to which the children enjoy and make use of library materials, insisting that it is easy for the teacher to destroy the love of reading and other skills or to stunt the development thereof;· all participants and leader-teachers stressed the important role played by each pupils' individual cognitive capabilities in the successful attainment of skills. This principle of individuality, which explains the existence of the syndrome of fast and slow learners and which implies individual capability, is supported by Hanna (1965), Norton (1991) and Radebe (1995: 119), in acknowledging that every child is an individual whose individual interests, values, capabilities and needs have to be taken into cognisance in learning situations and when making reading-related recommendations.
Independence in accessing the library
Concerning how long it took pupils to access the library independently, all participants and leader-teachers explained that children take different time spans as some are faster than others. In general they estimated that within a week pupils begin to frequent the library depending on the teacher's encouragement. In addition, the time pupils take to access the library independently depends on the previous class - if the previous teacher is not interested, the pupils get to the next level without the inclination to access the library. If the pupils were motivated in the previous class the next teacher simply needs to nurture what has been instilled.
Reading
Regarding reading, the participants and leader-teachers concurred that reading is a skill which is basic to all others. The level at which and the pace with which this skill is inculcated in the pupils impacts on the learning of all other skills discussed in this chapter. They claimed that improvement in reading was noticeable from level to level - when they cope at the next level the conclusion is that they were taught in the previous level. Exceptions both ways were reported, that is, fast readers and slow readers for whom sometimes it becomes a big struggle and a challenge for the teachers.
Selecting fiction independently
According to all participants, this is the easiest skill for the pupils to grasp, although again, the teacher's direction and encouragement is crucial.
Using reference materials
All participants and leader-teachers concluded that at the beginning pupils need a lot of supervision and encouragement in using reference materials, especially to choose from the right levels. Progress depends on the individual pupil and the teacher's input. If the teacher does not give supervision and guidance, pupils do not select relevant materials but tend to grab whatever catches their eyes. Another conclusion by all participants is that teachers' commitment, depth of knowledge and activeness are important attributes. Selecting relevant materials for projects depends on the teacher's motivation and on input at the previous level.
All participants and leader-teachers declared that READ's reference books are good as they are colourful and contain pictures which makes it possible even for Grade 1 pupils to start using them with independence from about 3 weeks. By the time they get to Grade 5 they are sufficiently independent.
Critical thinking skills
Regarding the time, after initiation to the library, it takes learners to display critical thinking skills, all participants and leader-teachers agreed that the improvement is really noticeable and felt as they move from level to level. This also depends on the type of teacher they have had in terms of being skilled and committed. From Grades Two or Three pupils display these skills depending on how much the teacher puts in. The estimation was that it took about seven months, at any level, from beginning of the year for the teacher to see and experience the change and to recognize the skills that s/he has been instilling all year.
The time to evaluate any school information skills programme is when the students introduced in their first year reach the sixth form (Sliney in Markless 1986: 24). It is when they proceed to tertiary programmes, the present researcher adds, that one can judge clearly whether the skills are there or not.
Two districts mentioned that pupils do their own evaluations of books; they are supplied with cards on which they rate them in order of interest, explaining why they like one book more than the other. Many participants agreed that it was rewarding to hear pupils discussing the cover of the book and many different views emerging. They start challenging and criticizing one another and they can draw their own conclusions and formulate their own arguments when doing projects. The results are very rewarding because the pupils get used to reading critically. This confirmed Brindley's suggestion (1991: 60) of stressing to students that they are the evaluators and their opinions matter even when they differ from those of the teacher.
Deciphering and formulating viewpoints
The claim by all participants was that by the time pupils get to Grade 3 they can decipher differing viewpoints and can formulate their own, adding that it really depends on the teacher and individual capability of the child. For instance if something the pupils have been taught is presented differently on television they challenge the teacher on it the next day. This means that they can get information from different media and they can relate this information to what they were taught and make connections.
Continuity between classes
One of the greatest concerns expressed by all participants is that of lack of continuity between classes. One teacher's diligence can be easily nullified by the teacher on the next level who is not committed to the skills which have been instilled at the previous level. Factors responsible for this lack of continuity, as raised by the participants and leader-teachers are discussed below:
· many principals are not committed to READ programmes, do not go for training and so do not insist on making READ workshop attendance and library use compulsory. This has already been reported under the section on training, where it is also a problem. The lack of support by a number of principals was also said by a library adviser to be the biggest problem leading to failures in programme implementation. Another library adviser supported this, stating that the schools which implement READ's methods to the best advantage are the schools with involved principals who work with their teachers as a team and who formulate a library policy for the whole school. As she put it, 'the odd reluctant teacher in these circumstances is usually carried along on the wave of peer pressure and is forced to make extra effort'. This confirms Markless's view (1986: 22) that if the impetus comes from one person it may spread outwards influencing others who see the effectiveness of integrating information skills into the curriculum. On the other hand, practice may remain patchy. Participants and leader-teachers also raised the problem of unqualified teachers who are never sent on courses.
Ray's suggestion (1994: 8), that the introduction of a whole-school policy for information skills would solve many of the problems such as lack of support from head and teaching colleagues, is worth taking seriously. A school-based approach which requires the development of a whole-school policy on information skills was recommended earlier by Markless (1986: 22) to address the problem mentioned above. Such a policy could be translated into practice gradually. A further suggestion by Markless (1986: 23) is that outcomes of curriculum development (through in-service courses) for instance focusing on resource-based learning, should be ongoing with initial INSET courses followed by school-based or consortium-based work. All participants, in their overall suggestions, argued that a school-based monitoring system is necessary to maintain a high standard of consistency amongst teachers. This system would be useful for motivating teachers to stay on track and to support training for new teachers and also to run refresher courses for those who have been working with class libraries for some time. A shared commitment to teaching skills for lifelong learning and for motivating students to take responsibility for their own learning was raised by Kuhlthau (1993: 11) as one of the underlying principles for implementing successfully a process approach to information skills.
Participants, leader-teachers and library advisers suggested that READ should canvas as many principals as possible, since they have a lot of success with those who are already genuinely involved. They agreed that the chances of winning in this area would be strengthened by the Education Department declaring the READ programmes compulsory for all teachers and principals. This would also avoid destruction of what has been inculcated when pupils moved to other schools or to other levels;
· one library adviser reported that staff changes, especially if a supportive teacher or principal is replaced with a non-supportive one, adversely affect continuity. Leadership problems in a school were reported by all in the study as damaging to continuity in the running of classroom libraries;· the other factor which affects continuity is that of lack of funding. Already library advisers and leader-teachers have reported that, due to lack of funds, it was no longer possible to provide materials. One library adviser reported several requests from schools new to her circuit, who have seen READ libraries and teachers' and pupils' work, but who they will not be able to accommodate unless they get more funding.
Cost-effectiveness
The fact that READ is audited frequently with detailed financial statements being made available to the stakeholders, the public and funders, is indicative of its confidence in its programmes and their effectiveness in relation to costs. Although it has not been all smooth-sailing, READ has had regular funders for years and it is only logical that funding would not have continued if donors were not convinced of the cost-effectiveness of READ's classroom libraries and supporting programmes.
As reported earlier, pupils in READ schools have accelerated their language proficiency skills by up to two years. In financial terms, this must surely reflect one of the best returns on investment in all education funding and spending (Le Roux and Schollar 1996: 24). This was confirmed by an observation which was made by all participants and leader-teachers, that is, that pupils from READ schools, formerly and still mainly black, do not struggle to get into mixed schools in the city where entry and admission is preceded by an interview. A number of instances were cited in which READ pupils have not been held back in terms of entry level as is 'normally' the case for pupils from previously disadvantaged schools. These comments confirm the value of the classroom libraries and the programmes which accompany them
Parental involvement
Parental involvement is a strong feature of the READ programmes as the Trust emphasizes it at all levels as part of teachers' professional development. The issue of parental involvement cannot be romanticized: the country has to face the fact that the majority of parents are illiterate which makes the issue of involvement in their children's education a problem. In some cases parents are involved, genuinely, but each situation is different. For instance the participants from urban schools reported that they had a measure of success whereas those from rural schools advised that the parents needed a lot of counselling because of this lack of involvement. An inferiority complex, arising from illiteracy, reportedly played a role in countering genuine involvement of these parents. As the participants asserted, this issue of parental apathy requires further in-depth investigation, if solutions are to be found.
Additional suggestions
Participants made a number of other suggestions, all on the understanding that the national, provincial and local education authorities would pledge full support for the READ programmes:
· certificationParticipants would like certification after a number of training sessions; this would be an incentive for all teachers to become involved, especially as the certificates would be useful in career progression. Consequently one would assume that such certification would be recognized by education authorities and rewarded. Since READ is already issuing performance certificates which secure teachers credits from the Natal College of Education (NCE), a further suggestion was for the certification to be linked to and recognized by the Department of Education. The participants and leader-teachers hoped that this would result in more teachers being motivated to give READ programmes the seriousness and attention they deserve;
· festival of books
More than one READ Festival of Books (at least twice a year), where everyone is allowed to make a presentation and everyone could be a winner, was requested. The claim by participants is that the festival plays the crucial role of enhancing commitment on the part of all stakeholders, many of whom do attend these occasions. The popularity of festivals was confirmed by a library adviser who reported an attendance of ±80% of teachers, from the schools she used to work in, at the Festival of Books. This also reflects on the popularity of reading, choral verse and drama in the schools;
· high schools
Participants wanted READ to be more active in high schools to ensure continuity. Again, this requires full support by the Department of Education.
The findings of this survey on the effectiveness of classroom libraries (as run by READ) within the context of South African education are positive. The classroom library has benefited the education of pupils as well the teachers' performance. It has effected a resource-based education by enriching the learner's learning experience in a stimulating environment. The conclusion is that READ has the infrastructure and expertise to take South Africa through the transformation period with their classroom libraries.
Achievements of the read classroom library
The classroom library provides the pupils and teachers with sufficient materials, relevant to their teaching and learning needs. This is due in part to the flexibility in-built in the READ programme. Teachers have been allowed to accumulate and keep materials according to their felt needs. The materials in the libraries are curriculum-based, because they are developed and designed by READ with this in mind. Their aim is to effect learner-centred learning practices and outcomes-based education. The materials allow grading according to difficulty which is a break with an absurd tradition, adhered to by the apartheid education system, to retard the black child by regarding all children as the same with the same capabilities and interests and as operating at the same level of development. The attractiveness and bright colours of READ materials have transformed the otherwise bleak classrooms into stimulating environments conducive to positive learning experiences. What is more, the location of the books in the classroom makes them easily accessible at all times of day, both by the teacher and the pupil.
Although READ's practice of using only their staff, whom they have trained and exposed to a variety of views, in the selection of materials for the classroom library, was criticized by some of the participants in the focus group discussions, it is safe and works well. To select books, one must have an in-depth knowledge in the field; leader-teachers are involved in selection and their views are always considered. They have been trained in the area and are able to make a contribution which includes teachers' recommendations. Although READ have tended to favour books with black characters and local settings against Eurocentric books, the teachers are allowed to send back what they are not impressed with, as they pointed out in the discussion. And READ do now offer a mix in terms of settings and contexts in their books; they are not restricted exclusively to black and rural settings. This change reflects READ's ability to respond to requests and suggestions from teachers and to reports on pupil preferences.
One finding of the survey is that the role and input of the teacher is absolutely crucial to the success of the classroom library. A major strength is the integration of teacher training into the READ programme. This has enabled teachers to move away from the tyranny of textbooks, instilling in them that knowledge comes from a variety of sources and that there are always more than one view on an issue; it has equipped teachers with critical thinking and information handling skills which the colleges of education have not inculcated in them and which are essential for the successful running of a classroom library. READ training thus makes up for the inadequate curricula in colleges of education. An important achievement is the successful designing of courses and materials which encourage teachers to write new materials with their pupils. The gain is in the fact that learners are taught to carry some responsibility for their learning, and in that relevance to the curriculum is sustained. The evaluation and assessment component which is built into READ courses and materials is a valuable tool which provides a mechanism for redesigning and rewriting of courses and materials, should the need arise. In this way teachers are never stuck with unusable and irrelevant materials. Follow-up workshops are also a strong feature of READ programmes. Another finding of the survey was that the support of a school principal is crucial. READ has recognized this and has started training programmes in this area.
Once a classroom library is in place, teachers continue to be offered support by READ through their local library advisers. The good interpersonal relations between the READ advisers and the teachers was noted as having a positive impact on the running of the library and keeping teachers committed to the programme.
The classroom library does not limit users in their search for information. Instead it has proved to be a stepping stone to the use of a larger library. It is important to note that the enterprising spirit instilled in teachers by READ, has made teachers take it upon themselves to forge relations with other libraries for the purposes, amongst others, of exposing pupils to more 'technical' library skills and of nurturing their classroom libraries. The findings of the survey also show that classroom libraries have succeeded in inculcating confidence in reading, materials selection skills, and analytical and critical thinking skills in pupils.
The classroom library as a model for the future
In this present climate of 'no funds' for providing each school with a library and a teacher-librarian to run it, READ's classroom library appears to be a most appropriate model. It does not require the school to have a post for a teacher-librarian. Instead, every teacher trained by READ can run a classroom-based library. And the cost of training teachers in classroom library skills is much less than that required for training teacher-librarians. It has been pointed out that at the moment 22,500 schools in South Africa lack libraries. And it costs on average R450,000 (US$105,634) to provide each school with a library, excluding stock. This figure can be compared with the R20,032.50 (US$4,702.50) which is required to equip a school with a set of 15 classroom libraries. Planners and decision makers will need to consider this if a solution to the lack of library resources is found in time for the implementation of the new curriculum. The final objective of a library for every school can still be maintained, as it has become evident that it is possible to build a central library from classroom libraries.
Regarding cost-effectiveness, although we have a sense of the cost of classroom libraries, this survey has found it difficult to relate that cost to their effectiveness. At the same time we have the evidence that pupils in READ schools have accelerated their language proficiency skills by up to two years and are very clearly ahead of their counterparts in the control schools in terms of both reading and writing. In a simplistic way, the present researcher concludes that these resources are indeed cost-effective, especially as the funders remain loyal after a number of years.
The Centre for Education Policy Development in 1994 recommended that READ should service all nine provinces of South Africa. Certainly their programmes are totally in accord with DoE's Curriculum 2005. In addition, the READ programme and its materials provide a tool for assessing the specific outcomes outlined by the Department of Education, making it possible to identify performance criteria. READ has given a lot of attention to schools in rural areas, where problems are more extreme and entrenched by greater poverty, geographical and political isolation, fewer employment options, feelings of dependency exacerbated by more bureaucracy and traditional authoritarianism and resistance to change. The national, provincial and local departments of education can learn a lot from READ regarding ways of bringing rural schools on board.
It is unfortunate that READ do not have an endless supply of funds and funders to extend their resources to every school and every teacher. As we have seen this already causes problems in continuity from class to class and from school to school. What is now needed is support from the Department of Education. For example developing a whole-school policy on the compulsory use of classroom libraries will have to have the full support of the Department. And the issue of parental involvement in rural schools is still one to be addressed. This is a rather big and complex area which requires the involvement of the Department of Education. A lot of research is needed to address issues such as the suggested counselling to deal with deep-rooted problems of an inferiority self-concept, apathy and general non-involvement of parents in their children's education. Where adult literacy projects are in place, some improvement is witnessed. Most of all, direct financial support from the Department is required if READ is to extend its programmes on the scale needed.
1. Gwala is a superintendent in education management in the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Education, Pietermaritzburg.2. The terms learners and pupils are used interchangeably in this chapter.
3. There is an on-going debate in South Africa about the concepts of public and community libraries. In this chapter, they are all referred to as public libraries serving the communities within which they are situated.
4. It should be stressed that this study was neither commissioned nor solicited by READ. It is not an examination of the READ programme but rather an assessment of the modality of classroom libraries. READ already has a strong internal programme evaluation system of its own. At the same time READ has been supportive in providing the necessary information for this study.
5. The conference on School Learners and Libraries was held in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal in November 1995. It aimed at considering ways to make learning resources more accessible to school learners.
6. Participants expressed discomfort at having to make suggestions which sounded like demands from READ. They recognized that READ was giving them and their pupils a wealth of learning experiences, a responsibility that should have been shouldered by the Department of Education.
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