CHAPTER 3 - SECTORAL TRAINING

3.1 Survey Design and Methodology
3.2 Tanzania
3.3 Zimbabwe

3.1 Survey Design and Methodology

The main objective of this survey was to assess the extent to which sector-specific training provided by individual ministries has changed since the start of economic adjustment programmes in Tanzania and Zimbabwe. Although ministerial mandates are not identical in each country, the following eight sectors were included in the surveys: agriculture, community development, energy, finance, health, public works, trade and industry, transport

Interviews were conducted with the official in each ministry who had overall responsibility for training. In addition, interviews were conducted with the principals/directors of individual training centres in each ministry. A total of 17 and 18 institutions were selected in Tanzania and Zimbabwe respectively. Interviews in both countries were conducted between October 1996 and April 1997.

Interviews were relatively unstructured and open-ended, but were based on a questionnaire. The purpose of each interview was to obtain information (both qualitative and quantitative) on the changes that have occurred with respect to the following key areas of training provision since 1990; overall training policies and priorities, the planning, organisation and management of training activities, resource inputs (in particular funding and staffing) and student enrolments and outputs.

3.2 Tanzania

The ministries and public sector training institutions that were surveyed in Tanzania are presented in Table 3.1.

3.2.1 Type of Training

In all eight ministries, the type of long term training provided over the last 5-10 years has, with a few exceptions, remained largely unchanged. Ministries continue to offer the same 2-4 year pre-employment courses for core occupations in agriculture, commerce, community development, energy, finance, health, mining, transport as well as more general technical occupations. However, with greater institutional autonomy, some new, mainly short training courses have been introduced as a direct response to the new economic environment (see below).

Table 3.1: Survey ministries and training institutions in Tanzania

Ministry	Training institutions	Location (region)
Agriculture and Co-operatives	The Co-operative College	Kilimanjaro
	Tengeru Horticulture Development Institute	Arusha
Communication and Transport	National Institute of Transport	DSM
Community Development, Women and Children	Msinga Folk Development College	Kilimanjaro
	Same Folk Development College	Kilimanjaro
	Mamtukure Folk Development College	Kilimanjaro
	Tango Folk Development College	Arusha
Energy and Minerals	TANESCO Training Institute	Kidatu
	Institute of Minerals (MADINI)	Dodoma
Finance	Institute of Accountancy	Arusha
	Dar Es Salaam School of Accountancy	DSM
Health	KCMC Nursing School	Kilimanjaro
	Mawenzi Nursing School	Kilimanjaro
Science, Technology and Higher Education	Arusha Technical College	Arusha
	Dar Es Salaam Technical College	DSM
Trade and Industry	College of Business Education	DSM
	High Precision Technology Centre	DSM

Table 3.2 summarises the main changes that have been made to training courses at the survey training centres. Most centres have made some changes to the content and duration of existing training courses as well as introducing new courses in response to new market demands. These changes have been greatest at the commercial training centres in Dar Es Salaam and Arusha (the two schools of accountancy and the College of Business Education), the Co-operative College in Moshi, some of the Folk Development Colleges and the two technical colleges. In overall terms, however, only about one-third of the survey training centres have made 'major changes' in the type of training they offer since the late 1980s.

Table 3.2: Respondent ratings of extent of change in training provision since 1990 (percentages)

Type of training	No change	Limited changes	Major changes
Pre-service training	35.5	29.4	35.3
In-service training	35.3	29.4	35.3
Other groups training	35.3	47.1	17.6
Changes to training priorities	29.4	47.1	23.5
Changes to content of training	17.6	53.0	29.4
Changes to teaching and learning techniques	23.5	41.2	35.3
Average change	29.4	41.2	29.4

3.2.2 Organisation and Planning

There have been major changes in both the organisation and planning of VET since the late 1980s in almost all the ministries and related training centres surveyed. Most notably, there has been a decisive shift away from centralised control by parent ministries towards more decentralised patterns of organisation and planning with many training centres now enjoying a very considerable degree of institutional autonomy. Previously, most centres could not receive funds from outside sources, retain funds earned from their own income generating activities nor retain fees collected from students. They have now been given the authority to control directly these resources in support of their own training activities. As a result, there has been a marked improvement in the ability of training centres to provide good quality training

Individual training centres are increasingly setting their own training targets and are assuming much greater responsibility for student selection and course evaluation. Some degree of institutional autonomy has been given to training centres in four of the survey ministries (community development, women and children, affairs, finance, industry and trade, and science, technology and higher education). Significantly, much of the training provided by these ministries (particularly in commercial fields) is increasingly being offered by private training centres and where, therefore, there exists fairly strong individual and corporate demand for this training. By giving training centres more autonomy, this allows them to better position themselves in increasingly competitive training markets and exploit income earning opportunities.

3.2.3 Human and Physical Resources

Table 3.3 summarises the staffing information available from the survey training centres. Vacancy rates in 1995/96 were particularly high at five of the 11 centres. These centres specialise in accountancy and engineering training. Prior to the introduction of the Economic Reform Programme in 1986, most public sector training centres operated at or near full establishment levels so it would appear that the staffing situation has deteriorated appreciably among at least half of the survey training centres. To a large extent, this has been the consequence of government attempts to reduce public expenditure which, inter alia, have included a freeze on all new public sector employment and the introduction of cash budgeting in 1995 (see below). The emergence of private sector training centres has also adversely affected the staffing situation in the public sector with some of the most able instructors leaving to take up more lucrative employment at private training centres.

In real terms, basic salaries for more experienced instructors employed at public sector training centres were typically 15-20 per cent higher in 1995 than in 1990. However, for basic grade instructors, real incomes fell by approximately 10 per cent during the same period. Up to July 1996, instructors received an additional 50 per cent of their basic salaries as teaching allowances in order to enhance their take home pay. Other benefits included housing and transport and fuel allowances for those owning private vehicles. These allowances were not subject to taxation. However, with the introduction of new salary scales in July 1996, these allowances were consolidated into a single salary. As a result, instructors lost up to 30 per cent of their previous pay. Taking into account inflation, this meant that real incomes fell by over half in 1996 alone. The level of opposition was such that the government agreed to introduce new and separate pay scales for teacher trainers and other instructors.

Table 3.3: Staffing at survey training centres in Tanzania, 1996

Institution	Approved	In-post	Vacancies	Vacancies per cent Establishment
Co-operative College	84	84	0	0.0
Tengeru Agricultural Institute	27	25	2	7.4
Same FDC	12	12	0	0.0
Tango FDC	10	10	0	0.0
TANESCO Training Centre	29	28	1	3.4
Institute of Accountancy, Arusha	21	13	8	38.1
Dar Es Salaam School of Accountancy	74	56	18	24.3
Arusha Technical College	88	62	26	29.5
Dar Es Salaam Technical College	220	115	105	47.7
College of Business Education	54	50	4	7.4
High Precision Technology Centre	15	11	4	26.6

Source: Survey data.

The introduction of major cost-sharing measures in 1994/95 seriously reduced enrolments at most of the survey institutions which, in turn, has led to under-utilisation of both physical and human resources. As noted earlier, training centres have been given greater control over their activities so that they can better utilise the resources available to them. Four of the survey centres (Dar Es Salaam Technical College, the College of Business Education, High Precision Technology Centre and the National Institute of Transport) have been among the most successful centres in responding to the challenges thrown up by the new set of government policies (see Box 1).

While most of the remaining survey training centres have tried to introduce similar income-generating projects, they have not been as successful. At the Co-operative College, for example, specialised short courses have been introduced to help students prepare for local professional examinations in accountancy and materials management as well as new outreach programs for framer groups. However, overall capacity utilisation at the College is still under 50 per cent. Similarly, the Dar Es Salaam School of Accountancy and the Institute Of Accountancy in Arusha suffer from serious resource under-utilisation. Poor remuneration of instructors has undermined motivation and many have been poached by other organisations. It is clear that training centres such as these need to be given a lot more autonomy so that they can more effectively respond to emerging market opportunities and generate sufficient income to provide more attractive salary packages for their teaching staffs. Excessive interference from parent ministries has also prevented centre managements from effectively disciplining poorly performing staff at all levels. Without the power to dismiss staff, attempts to improve efficiency will be seriously constrained.

3.2.4 Funding

BOX 1: Examples of successful institutional adjustment Dar Es Salaam Technical College (DTC) has taken full advantage of its city centre location. A large number of demand-driven specialised short courses (mainly in engineering, secondary science subjects, and basic computing) have been successfully introduced along with other income generating activities, most notably consultancy services by instructors and other staff. The income from these activities is divided between the staff and the college on a 70:30 basis. Daily attendance on these new, specialised training courses averages over 1800 students which is far in excess of the college's enrolment capacity of 1240 for long term diploma and certificate courses. The College of Business Education (CBE) has also designed and run a number of specialised training courses in accountancy and book keeping, marketing, and materials management as well as offering secondary school subjects in the afternoons. Instructors receive up to 50 percent of the fee income that is earned. CBE also provides housing and meal allowances. These new training activities have allowed CBE to operate at full capacity despite rapidly deteriorating government funding and ensured that teaching and support staff have been fully occupied. The High Precision Technology Centre (HPTC) has adopted a somewhat different strategy in order to generate additional income. Through market research, HPTC has identified a number of machine parts which instructors and students now produce for a variety of clients in the industrial sector. The Centre's is also using its facilities to repair accident-damaged vehicles. Between 40-50 percent of the income generated from these activities is paid to staff and students with the balance retained by the Centre. In this way, HPTC has managed to utilise fully both its human and physical resources. The National Institute of Transport (NIT) has also diversified its training activities and now runs short courses in basic computing, auto-mechanics and academic subjects for secondary school students. Instructors also undertake consultancies for a variety of clients. However, the Institute still has some way to go before it succeeds in fully utilising its staff and facilities. In particular, there is a lot of unexploited potential in auto-mechanic and auto-electrical training.

Tables 3.4 and 3.5 present the available information on real recurrent and development expenditures at the survey ministries and for eight of the survey training centres. Since 1993/94, there has been a precipitate decline in real expenditure on training in six out of the eight ministries. In four ministries (communications and transport, community development, women and children, energy and transport, and science, technology and higher education) real expenditure in 1995/96 was half or less than in 1990/91. The overall share of ministry-based VET in the overall education and training budget fell from 18 per cent in 1993/94 to only 12 per cent in 1995/96.

Turning to individual training centres, again, the same trend emerges, with the real value of government subventions falling dramatically since 1993/94 when cost-recovery policies were first introduced. Unconfirmed figures for 1995/96 disbursements indicate that the overall allocation for training activities may have even dropped a further 30 per cent as a significant part of the budgeted funds were reallocated to meet the costs of the 1995 multiparty elections. Five survey centres (Dar Es Salaam Technical College, the College of Business Education, Tengeru Community Development Institute, the National Institute of Transport and the Dar Es Salaam School of Accountancy) stated that they did not receive any government funding for 3-6 months during 1995.

Table 3.4: Real recurrent training expenditure among the survey ministries, 1990/91-1995/96

Ministry	Recurrent			Development
	1990/91	1993/94	1995/96	1990/91	1993/94	1995/96
Agriculture and Co-operatives	100	103	65	-	-	-
Communications and Transport	100	120	15	-	-	-
Community Development, Women and Children	100	95	32	100	365	-
Energy and Minerals	100	111	52	100	177	59
Finance	100	145	144	-	-	-
Health	100	120	68	100	160	121
Trade and Industry	100	313	183	-	100	39
Science, Technology and Higher Education	100	94	54	100	87	47
Overall	100	115	71	-	-	-

The decline in development expenditures is largely the consequence of waning donor support for VET. The government had become largely dependent on donors for non-recurrent capital expenditure to develop and sustain the training capacities of many public sector centres. However, during the 1990s this support has been confined to a relatively few institutions. Among the survey centres, significant donor-supported activity was reported at the Folk Development Colleges (SIDA and DANIDA), and the two technical colleges and the National Institute of Transport (World Bank). With the notable exception of NVTD/VETA, donor funding for VET dried up altogether at other public sector training institutions.

Table 3.5: Recurrent expenditure for selected survey training centres (constant prices, 1990/91 = 100)

Ministry and training centre		Recurrent
		1990/91	1993/94	1994/95	1995/96 (estimates)
Agriculture
	Co-operative College	100	147	151	134
Tengeru Agricultural Training Institute		100	66	30	8
Communication and Transport
	National Institute of Transport	100	218	159	28
Energy and Minerals
	Institute of Minerals	100	170	252	108
Finance
	Institute of Accountancy, Arusha	100	115	121	120
	DSM School of Accountancy	100	186	170	108
Trade and Industry
	College of Business Education	100	132	81	74
	High Precision Technology		100	40	33
Centre

3.2.5 Cost Recovery

Under the new policy, students and their parents or other sponsors are now required to meet the food and subsistence costs of all long term degree, diploma and certificate courses offered by government training institutions including the universities. In 1993/94, private contributions to the costs of higher education amounted to 16 per cent of total costs per student (see Mushi, 1995). Long term loans to help cover these private costs are now available. For other, mainly short term courses, training centres are now expected to operate on a full cost recovery basis with no public subsidy.

The main coping strategies adopted by the survey training centres are summarised in Annex 1. As discussed earlier, there is a small group centres that have been particularly successful in responding to the challenges of government's new policy regime for VET. Significantly, it is this group which has enjoyed the greatest institutional autonomy and where there exist rapidly growing demand for the types of courses offered by them (i.e. computing, accountancy, management, auto trades and more specialist engineering subjects).

Dar Es Salaam Technical College now manages to meet 70 per cent of its operating costs through course fees and other income generating activities. As part of legislation passed in early 1997, the College has become a fully autonomous institution under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education paving the way for it to be upgraded to a university of science and technology. The College of Business Education and High Precision Technology Centre also covered between 50-60 per cent of their operating courses during 1995 and 1996. However, government continues to meet salary costs at these three centres so clearly there is still a long way to go before they are fully financially self sufficient.

Another group of survey training centres have good potential for commercialising their services (which includes the Co-operative College, the two accountancy schools, the National Institute of Transport, and Arusha Technical College) but, as yet, have only made limited progress in generating new income. Only 25-30 per cent of operating costs were met in 1996. In part, this can be attributed to management inertia and lack of dynamism. Once the Institute of Minerals has been refurbished, there should also be considerable scope for income-generating courses and staff consultancies in the rapidly expanding mining sector. The challenge facing the Folk Development Courses is that much greater since they are mainly located in rural areas. However, imaginative self-funding training programs could be mounted to cover key areas of non-farm self employment including auto-mechanics, brick-making, brick-laying, carpentry, food processing, tailoring and metal-fabrication and welding.

Finally, there is a group of survey training centres where the scope for additional income generation is relatively limited. This includes Tengeru Horticulture Institute, the two nurse training centres (KCMC and Mawenzi), and the TANESCO Training Centre at Kidatu.

3.2.6 Enrolments and Outputs

Table 3.6 shows that for 7 out of the 11 survey training centres for which data are available, enrolments fell during the five year period 1990/91 to 1995/96. At five survey centres, enrolments have declined particularly rapidly since the introduction of cost recovery polices in 1994. However, among the minority of centres that have successfully adjusted to the new policy environment, enrolments and rates of capacity utilisation have increased during the 1990s (although these increases are relatively small).

Table 3.7 summarises available information of female enrolments at the survey training institutions. It can be observed that not only are female students a tiny minority at these centres, but that with the exception of HPTC, their percentage representation actually declined between 1991 and 1996.

Average capacity utilisation declined from 76 per cent in 1991/92 to 56 per cent in 1994/95. These averages conceal large differences among the individual survey centres. However, with the sole exceptions of Arusha Technical College and HPTC, capacity utilisation was less than 80 per cent at all the survey training centres with the lowest levels at the DSM School of Accountancy (34 per cent) and the Tengeru Horticulture Institute (47 per cent).

Table 3.6: Enrolment and capacity utilisation at survey institutions

Table 3.7: Female enrolment at selected survey training centres (percentage)

Centre	1991/92	1995/96
Dar Es Salaam Technical College	5.8	4.7
Arusha Technical College	16.8	11.5
TANESCO	7.1	6.5
HPTC	0.0	5.2
NIT	4.2	2.8
CBE	36.4	33.6

Unfortunately, insufficient time series data exists on graduate outputs to be able to draw any firm conclusions about trends in drop-out and pass rates and the overall level of graduate outputs among the survey training centres since the 1980s. Table 3.8 shows that graduation rates were generally quite high at the eight centres that were able to provide this information. The main exceptions are the Co-operative College and Dar Es Salaam and Arusha Technical Colleges.

Table 3.8: Summary of graduates at selected institutions in 1995/96

Institution	Total students in final year (all courses)	Graduates (output)	Graduation rate
KIDATU Institute	33	32	97
HPTC	23	19	83
Dar Technical College	292	218	75
Arusha Technical College	179	139	78
National Institute of transport	69	61	88
College of Business Education	278	273	98
Tengeru Horticulture	16	16	100
Co-operative College+	37	24	65

Source: Survey data.
Note: HPTC = High Precision Technology Centre.
⁺ Certificate in Management Accountancy only

3.3 Zimbabwe

The survey in Zimbabwe covered the following eight ministries: agriculture, health and child welfare, information, local government, rural and urban development, posts and telecommunications, mines, national affairs, employment, and co-operatives, public service, labour and social welfare, and transport and energy. Between them, these ministries provide the bulk of public sector training outside of the MOHE. The 18 individual training centres included in survey are presented in Table 3.9.

Table 3.9: Survey ministries and training institutions

Parent Ministry	Training institutions surveyed
Agriculture	Chibero Agricultural College epartment of Agricultural Education
Health and Child Welfare	Directorate of Nursing Services epartment of Nursing Science (University of Zimbabwe)
Information, Posts and Telecommunications	Post and Telecommunications Corp (PTC) echnical College
Local Government, Rural and Urban Development	District Development Fund Training Centres (8)
Mines	School of Mines
National Affairs, Employment and Co-operatives	Kaguvi, Magamba and Ruwa Youth Training Centres Department of Youth Training and Staff Development
Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare	Directorate of Training Highlands and Domboshawa National Training Centres Zimbabwe Institute of Public Administration and Management (ZIPAM) Ruwa Rehabilitation Centre Directorate of Social Welfare
Transport and Energy	Aviation Technical Training School (Air Zimbabwe) Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA) National Training Centre

There are two main types of training institution in the public sector in Zimbabwe namely, those that are directly controlled by parent ministries and are subject to both Public Service Commission and Treasury regulations and procedures, and those that are part of parastatals or have been granted greater institutional autonomy by parent ministries. For expositional convenience, these will be referred to as ministry-based and parastatal-based training centres respectively.

3.3.1 Training mandates and objectives

Since the start of ESAP in 1991, 90 per cent of the survey ministries and training centres stated that the type of training provided had 'significantly changed'. This applies to both pre- and in-service course provision. While all these changes in training cannot be directly attributed to the impacts of ESAP, it would appear that the new macroeconomic policy regime has put ministries under some pressure to make adjustments to their own training. However, the degree of success in responding to these new challenges has varied considerably among the survey ministries and training centres. In some instances, the quantity and the quality of training has deteriorated quite seriously.

Target Clienteles: Table 3.10 shows that 40 per cent of the survey respondents reported that training provision has changed as a result of new priority groups of trainees being targeted. Three particular types of reorientation of training objectives can be broadly identified:

(i) A shift towards short term training courses with respect to both in-service and external client groups. Parastatal training organisations (ZIPAM, ZESA-NTC, School of Mines, PTC-TC) have attempted to commercialise their training operations with training for external clients becoming an increasingly important source of income.

(ii) An increased emphasis on entrepreneurship training. The prime examples here are Kaguvi and Magamba Youth Training Centres which have been comprehensively reorganised as Enterprise Training Centres;

(iii) Qualification up-grading. As the supply of better qualified school leavers with 'O' and 'A' levels has increased rapidly since the 1980s, entrance qualifications have risen accordingly. Faced with this situation, some training centres (the colleges of agriculture, Domboshawa NTC, the Directorate of Nursing) have introduced new diploma and degree courses. Policy changes often related to rapidly changing technologies have also been a key factor. For example, the new diploma nursing course is more theoretical and there is a much closer integration of primary health care and diagnostic procedures. The new post-basic courses offered at the University of Zimbabwe include basic computer skills, a compulsory clinical component and nurse education.

Table 3.10: Summary of respondent change ratings, 1990-96

Area of change	No change	Some change	Significant change
Priority target groups	35	25	40
Training content	0	15	85
Teaching/learning techniques	15	25	60
Student work attachments	55	20	25
Organisational structure	25	10	65
Planning procedures	45	5	50
Income sources	85	0	15

Even where there have been no change in priority training clienteles, most centres offering pre-service occupational training have had to make curriculum changes in order to bring their courses in line with the national structure of VET qualifications that was introduced by the MOHE in 1990. With regard to in-service training, the rapid introduction of new technologies coupled with an increased emphasis on meeting the training needs of all employees and not just technical personnel has also resulted in new courses being introduced (particularly computing) and, more generally, more diversified training provision. The dramatic technological changes in the electronic and communication industries has led to a major reorganisation of training programmes at PTC-TC. Pre- and in-service courses have been comprehensively reviewed and a range of new courses have been introduced including graduate engineer training, cross-sectoral training for supervisors and training for cellular and mobile telecommunications. Similarly, a decision was made to transform the ZESA-NTC into a Performance Improvement Centre to cater for the diverse training needs of all staff. Within the public service also, increasing pressure to restructure and modernise have resulted in a range of new courses at the Highlands NTC and ZIPAM (including performance and change management and basic information technology skills).

Training Content and Delivery: Given the pervasiveness of these significant changes in the type of training provided, only 15 per cent of survey respondents stated that there had been no or only limited change in the actual content of their training programmes (see Table 3.10). However, increasingly severe funding constraints affecting the ministry-based training centres and an overall decline in donor support, has meant that corresponding changes in teaching and learning techniques and technologies have been less pervasive. Nonetheless, 60 per cent of survey respondents reported major change in this area. Most of the parastatal and semi-autonomous centres (Air Zimbabwe TS, School of Mines, ZESA-NTC, PTC-TC, and ZIPAM) have had the sufficient financial resources to acquire better training equipment including computers, videos and software for modular and competency based training. At ZIPAM, there has been a move away from trainer-centred to trainee-centred learning techniques.

Employer Involvement and Industrial Attachments: A large majority of survey respondents stated that employer involvement in the governance, planning and delivery of training activities had 'increased significantly' (55 per cent) or 'increased' (15 per cent) since 1990. Only 10 per cent indicated that employer involvement had declined (see Table 3.11). Apart from the parastatal-based training centres (PTC, ZESA, ZIPAM) and the School of Mines, three ministries reported significantly higher employer involvement (MNAEC with respect to Kaguvi and Magamba YTCs, MLPSW - Highlands and Domboshawa, and MLGRUD - DDF Training Centres). Changes in governance arrangements have played a key role in encouraging employers to be more actively involved (see below).

Table 3.11: Summary of respondent change ratings, 1990-96

Area of change	Decreased significantly	Decreased	No change	Increased	Increased significantly
Employer involvement	5	5	20	15	55
Student intake quality	0	0	5	30	65
Private sector competition	5	0	55	10	30
Planning capacity	0	5	35	20	55
Quality of managers	0	0	15	20	65
Government funding	60	15	15	10	0
Donor funding	35	15	25	15	10
Quality of instructors	0	0	5	35	60
Motivation of instructors	5	50	10	15	20
Quality of support staff	0	0	20	40	40
Motivation of support staff	15	45	10	15	15
In-service training	0	0	30	50	20
Student contact hours	10	0	50	20	20
Ability to dismiss	5	25	60	5	5
Utilisation of facilities	5	10	45	15	25

Changes in the level of industrial attachments by students have been much less marked - only 25 per cent of the sample indicated that there had been a significant increase since 1990, 20 per cent some increase and 55 per cent no change. Clearly, where centres are providing mainly in-service training, work attachments are not generally required. Work attachments have increased at some centres in order to comply with the statutory minimum requirements for HEXCO certificate courses.

3.3.2 Organisation, planning and management

Organisational Restructuring: Two-thirds of the ministries and centres surveyed stated that 'significant changes' to organisational structures had been made since 1990. Only 25 per cent reported 'no change' (see Table 3.10). Organisational reforms have generally been a key component of strategies to improve the capacity of training centres to provide cost-effective, high-quality training. Five main types of organisational restructuring can be identified:

(i) The establishment of semi-autonomous training centres with new or radically reconstituted governing boards and considerable freedom with respect to management and financing policies and practices. The School of Mines and ZIPAM are the two prime examples of this type of reorganisation;

(ii) More limited changes to governance structures that do not result in effective organisational independence, but attempt to increase the involvement of key stakeholders. A Board of Trustees has been created at Kaguvi Enterprise Training Centre and a Board of Studies at Domboshawa NTC.

(iii) The establishment of new training departments/divisions which, however, still remain under the direct control of the parent ministry. For example, the Department of Youth Affairs, MNAEC has been replaced by a Department of Training and Staff Development. The training function for nurses has also been upgraded and professionalised in the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare with the creation of a Directorate of Nursing Services with its own Director who reports directly to the Principal Medical Officer.

(iv) The effective dismantlement of a separate training department. In 1995, all professional and technical staff at the eight DDF training centres were redeployed to line functions in other specialist departments where conditions of service are considerably better. This redeployment coupled with lack of adequate funding has resulted in the suspension of all formal vocational and apprenticeship training at the DDF centres.

(v) Reorganisation of existing training centres. The PTC-TC has been restructured and upgraded as a department within the PTC in order to create more attractive career prospects for training personnel who previously had little financial incentive to stay at the college.

Planning Capacity and Procedures: Three-quarters of survey respondents stated that their capacity to plan training activities had 'improved significantly' (DDF, Public Service Directorate of Training, Directorate of Nursing Services, MNAEC, PTC-TC, School of Mines, ZESA, ZIPAM) or 'improved' (Air Zimbabwe TS, Domboshawa NTC, Directorate of Social Welfare, Highlands Public Service TC) since 1990. This was largely attributed to better trained staff and closer links with employers. The 25 per cent of survey respondents who stated that planning capacity had deteriorated or remained unchanged pointed to financial constraints. With inadequate and declining funding coupled with unattractive remuneration and working conditions, these centres (Ruwa YTC, Gwebi and Chibero Colleges of Agriculture, Ruwa Rehabilitation TC) have been unable to acquire and maintain the necessary resources, retain experienced staff, and liaise with employers.

Half the respondents reported that major changes have been made to planning procedures since 1990 while 45 per cent stated that there have been no changes. Where changes have been made, planning is more demand-driven with employers and other end-users being more directly and systematically consulted. At the ZESA National Training Centre, trainers are attached to the different sections within the organisation and staff appraisal instruments and procedures have been re-designed so that individual training needs are properly assessed.

Management: All but three survey centres stated that significant actions have been taken to improve the quality of training managers, including the filling of vacant posts and increasing staff establishments, raising the qualifications profile of managers and enhanced training, improving conditions of service, and the employment of expatriates. For the ministry-based centres, these management improvement efforts have been made in the face of 'no expansion budgets', a freeze followed by the abolition of all vacant posts, and stringent immigration controls (see below). It is surprising to find therefore that almost two-thirds of the survey centres indicated that there have been major improvements in the overall quality of training managers with another 20 per cent reporting an 'increase' in quality. Higher recruitment standards and increased staff development activities are the most commonly cited explanatory factors.

3.3.3 Funding

Sources of Funding: All ministry-based training centres (with the sole exception of Kaguvi ETC) are entirely dependent on government funding. Up until 1998, Treasury rules did not allow them to retain any self-generated income. Consequently, there was no real incentive for these centres to become more financially self-reliant. Only three of the survey training centres rely (at least partially) on their own income sources (Kaguvi ETC, School of Mines, and ZIPAM). The Department of Nursing Science at the University of Zimbabwe, the School of Mines and ZIPAM receive substantial financial support from government in the form of grants. Three centres run courses that were recognised by and thus receive funding from ZIMDEF (Air Zimbabwe TS, Ruwa Rehabilitation TC and the School of Mines). Only half of the survey training centres are donor supported.

Faced with the Treasury's refusal to allow centres to be given the authority to raise and retain their income (despite widespread representations), it is not surprising, therefore, that 85 per cent of the survey training centres reported no change in funding sources. Only Kaguvi ETC, the School of Mines and ZIPAM stated that major changes have occurred since 1990 in the sourcing of their funding. Both the School of Mines and ZIPAM have changed from being totally government funded to multi-funded, autonomous institutions. The government's annual grant to the School of Mines is matched by the Chamber of Mines. Both have introduced course fees and these have been increased very considerably in recent years. They are now so high that only employers and donors are able to sponsor students. Both centres are also expected to become fully financially self-reliant within the next 2-3 years so they will be effectively privatised.

Adequacy of funding: Most survey training centres reported 'significant declines' (60 per cent) and 'declines' (20 per cent) in the adequacy of government funding since 1990. No expansion budgets and a 'stop-payment' system were introduced in 1995. Domboshawa National Training Centre is fairly typical. Between 1990 and 1995, real expenditures on salaries fell 35.1 per cent, on travel and subsistence 76.4 per cent, provisions and staff training 41.5 per cent, grants 41.6 percent and equipment 100 per cent.

The level of donor support has also fallen in half of the survey training centres (35 per cent 'significantly'). Only 25 per cent stated that donor support had increased - Kaguvi and Magamba Enterprise Training Centres, PTC-TC, the School of Mines, and the Department of Nursing Science at the University of Zimbabwe

3.3.4 Staffing and human resources management

The staffing situation has improved at most VET centres since the start of ESAP. The number of instructors in-post increased at 8 out of the 10 public service centres for which information is available with a median increase between 1992 and 1995 of 12.5 per cent and an overall increase of 11.4 percent.

Real incomes of teaching staff at ministry-based training centres declined by 40-50 per cent between 1990 and 1995. Not surprisingly, therefore, over half of the respondents reported that levels of motivation have also fallen during the 1990s which has clearly undermined the overall efforts that have been made to improve staff efficiency in the public sector. Deteriorating conditions of service and working conditions are pervasive concerns. The freezing and subsequent abolition of posts has increased work pressure on remaining staff. 40 per cent of respondents stated that student contact hours had increased since 1990 with another 50 per cent estimating that there had been no changes.

The non-payment of bonuses and the untimely introduction of a new performance appraisal system that has still to be fully implemented have further aggravated this situation. Most of the survey training centres have still not benefited from a much publicised restructuring and regrading exercise for the public service as a whole. The funding crisis has meant that trainers have had to make do with few consumables and equipment and teaching aids that are in a poor state of repair and/or obsolete. Lack of funds to meet travel and subsistence expenses has also meant that staff have been unable to arrange and monitor effectively student work attachments. Support staff generally feel that trainers have been given preferential treatment by the Public Service.

Where survey training centres have been able to secure their funding position, increases in staff motivation were reported (most notably the Department of Nursing, School of Mines, PTC-TC, Kaguvi and Magaba ETCs). Improvements in conditions of service have been closely associated with increases in student contact hours.

Low and declining staff motivation has been further exacerbated by the persistence of very unwieldy procedures for dismissing staff. 60 per cent of respondents indicated that here has been no appreciable change in the ability of managements to dismiss trainers and support staff whose work standards are persistently unsatisfactory. Another 30 per cent stated that there had been a deterioration. Only the School of Mines indicated that management's power of dismissal has improved since 1990.

Staff Utilisation: Training staff at the two main administration and management centres (Highlands Public Service TC and ZIPAM) are seriously under-utilised. At ZIPAM, only 75 of the available 225 lecturing days per year were fully utilised in 1996 and the Public Service Directorate of Training frequently has to re-schedule and cancel courses. Poor management appreciation of the value of training across government departments and the lack of subsistence and travel funds for trainees are the main reasons for this situation.

Elsewhere, however, teaching staff are generally over-utilised. Enrolments are frequently determined on the basis of physical capacity to accommodate students rather than the appropriate training capacity of staff actually in-post. Given the freeze on new recruitment, staff who resign cannot be replaced and this has inevitably increased the teaching load on those who remain. This problem is especially acute where staff turnover is high (local government, nursing, public service, and youth training). One person departments are common at the youth training centres and Domboshawa NTC.

Actions to Improve Efficiency: All the survey training centres have taken various steps during the 1990s to improve the efficiency of both instructors and support staff. With respect to recruitment and staff development, these actions appear to have paid off; the quality of instructors is reported to have 'improved' at 95 per cent of the training centres (and 60 per cent of respondents stated that this improvement was 'significant'). The corresponding figures for support staff are slightly lower, but are still very high (80 per cent and 40 per cent respectively). As can be observed in Table 3.11, 70 per cent respondents rated that the provision of in-service training has increased since 1990.

3.3.5 Physical Resources Management

Utilisation: All the ministry-based training centres surveyed reported serious problems with equipment shortages, poor maintenance and obsolescence. The Directorate of Nursing is particularly concerned about widespread shortages and improvisation of equipment in teaching hospitals. The stop payment system has exacerbated already poor maintenance and timely repair of equipment because outside contractors are very wary of government requisitions.

Similarly pervasive concerns about the poor utilisation of land and buildings at the survey training centres are reported. In some instances, this is due to poor design of offices, laboratories and other buildings and/or very limited space that is available (Air Zimbabwe TS, Department of Nursing, Kaguvi ETC, Ruwa YTC). The School of Mines only has a temporary site which cannot accommodate all of its state of the art equipment. Only 30 per cent of the land at the agricultural colleges is productively utilised.

At ministry-based training centres, all repairs and alterations to permanent structures have to be undertaken by the Ministry of National Housing and Public Construction which, given the shortage of personnel and funding at the Ministry, means that very long delays have become the norm.

Actions to Improve Efficiency: All the respondents indicated that they had submitted concrete recommendations to their parent organisations for specific actions to be taken to improve the utilisation of physical facilities. However, over half reported that utilisation had 'declined' (15 per cent) or remained 'unchanged' (45 per cent) since 1990.

3.3.6 Enrolments

Pre-service Training: Pre-service enrolments increased between 1990 and 1995 at 6 out of the 8 ministry-based and 2 out of the 3 parastatal training centres for which information is available (see Table 3.12). The median increases were 27 per cent and 34.3 per cent for these two groups of centres respectively. However, it can be observed that enrolments also declined after 1993 at two other centres (Kaguvi ETC and the School of Nursing).

Generally higher pre-service enrolments at the ministry-based training centres occurred despite very sizeable falls in funding (in real terms) during the 1990s. Faced with increasingly acute funding and staffing constraints, actual enrolments have been typically much less than the maximum enrolment capacities at most of the survey centres. The demand for pre-service training among school leavers far exceeded the number of places available. For example, at the youth training centres and the School of Nursing there were 15,000 and 1000 applicants in 1996, but enrolments were only 2600 and 150 respectively.

Table 3.12: Pre- and in-service enrolments at survey training centres, 1990 and 1995

		Pre-Service			In-Service
		1990	1995	per cent Ä	1990	1995	per cent Ä
Public Service TCs
	Agricultural Colleges (4)	370	220	-40.5	-	-	-
	Agricultural Institutes (2)	253	353	39.5	-	-	-
	Directorate of Nursing	450	510	13.3	160	364	127.5
	Kaguvi YTC	75	104	38.7	-	-	-
	National Rehabilitation TC (3)	124	180	45.2	-	-	-
	Highlands NTC	-	-	-	13114	2569	-80.4
	Domboshawa NTC	-	-	-	3415	1242	-63.6
	DDF	-	-	-	205	0	-
	Senga TC	-	-	-	167	92	-44.9
	Elangeni TC	-	-	-	19	0	-
Parastatals
	Air Zimbabwe TS	154	112	-27.3	-	-	-
	PTC TC	67+	90	34.3	148	1348	810.8
	School of Mines	56	88	57.1	-	-	-
	ZESA NTC	+	-	-	801	1754	119.0

Unfortunately, not enough information is available on drop-out and pass rates for pre-service courses for it be possible to identify any patterns and trends during the 1990s.

In-service Training: While in-service training has increased very significantly in three areas of provision - electricity supply, nursing, and telecommunications, it has fallen sharply at the most of the public service training centres (Domboshawa, Highlands and Senga) and no training at all was offered at the DDF training centres after 1995 (see Table 3.12). At the ministry-based training centres, in-service enrolments fell by 74.7 per cent. In contrast, they increased very dramatically at both the parastatals (PTC and ZESA) for which information is available.

Annex 1: Coping strategies adopted by survey training institutions in Tanzania

Survey institution	Actions taken
CO-OPERATIVE COLLEGE, MOSHI	· Out-reach programs for farmer groups
	· Consultancy services
	· Soliciting for full student/private and employer sponsorship
	· Special tailored course in accountancy and marketing and materials management
	· Renting of unutilised facilities, running workshops and seminars.
TENGERU HORTICULTURE DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT	· Effective utilisation of trainees in horticulture production in order to raise in-house income
	· Short courses for horticulture farmers
	· Encourage private sponsorship.
	The Institute has little scope for income generating activities as it trains mostly extension workers in agricultural development and community work.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORT	· Soliciting for full private/employer sponsorship
	· Conducting evening courses for secondary school students
	· Introducing short courses in computer literacy
	· Renting idle or under-used facilities including the auto-mechanic workshop
	· Consultancy services
	· Considering introducing short courses in auto-electric and mechanic, & hydraulics and maximum use of auto-mechanic workshop
	· Considering introducing driving lessons and driving tests.
FOLK DEVELOPMENT COLLEGES (FDCs)	· Adoption of day-training schemes in tailoring, carpentry, agriculture and other production oriented activities to generate income or also save on boarding and lodging expenses
	· Emphasis on trainees payment of full fees
	· Aggressive advertising of programs offered in these centres.
	The FDC have more potential for income generating activities especially in the fields of automechanics, farming, brick/block laying and home economics activities.
TANESCO TRAINING CENTRE	· 90 per cent of the training program is financed by TANESCO itself and the other five per cent by private/student/employers.
	· There are no coping strategies other than soliciting NORAD/World Bank funding for in-service training courses for trainers and teaching equipment.
INSTITUTE OF MINERALS	· Scope for income generating activities at the Institute are currently limited as the Institute is still under construction. In future, income could be generated through laboratory analysis of mineral samples or through organising short-courses for small-scale miners, artisans and other operators (supervisory, marketing & evaluation etc.)
	· Field work in mining areas to be paid fully by mineral developers.
INSTITUTE OF ACCOUNTANCY, ARUSHA	· Aggressive marketing of long and special short courses offered (demand driven)
	· Short-term computer courses
	· Introduction of new courses to cater for demand especially in accountancy
	· Soliciting, for full student/private and employer sponsorship.
DAR ES SALAAM SCHOOL OF ACCOUNTANCY	· Short-term specialised training courses in simple accounting, materials management and accountancy
	· Introducing fees and soliciting for full student/private or employer sponsorship
	· Marketing programs through advertising
	· Consultancy services
	· Changed programs to relate them to demands of the market

Survey institution	Actions taken
KCMC and MAWENZI	· Scope for income generating activities for nurse training is limited - other than charging full training costs to students and employing sponsors.
ARUSHA TECHNICAL COLLEGE	· Introduction of fees
	· Introduction of short courses in electronics engineering and maintenance, computer training and also mechanical and civil engineering.
DAR ES SALAAM TECHNICAL COLLEGE	· Introduction of fees
	· Adoption of market-oriented training courses
	· Introduction of specialised part-time and short-term courses for technicians to acquire new skills, professional courses for engineers, secondary school courses especially in science and laboratory, computer data courses, electronics and electrical courses
	· Furniture making and repair
	· Renting excess or unutilised space
	· Analysis of soil samples
	· Consultancy services
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION	· Aggressive marketing of courses and programs
	· Designing tailor made part-time and short term courses for various groups especially in book-keeping, accountancy, marketing, material management
	· Emphasis on full private/student or employer sponsorship
	· Running private secondary school courses in the evening
	· Design special courses for retrenchees especially in marketing/accounts and how to start businesses.
HIGH PRECISION TECHNOLOGY CENTRE	· Production of spare parts and other precision tools for industrial firms
	· Auto-mechanic repairs and general reconditioning
	· Renting under utilised facilities e.g. dispensary
	· Visiting potential student sponsors
	· Preference for full tuition paying students
	· Limited consultancy services for industrial clients.