7.1 Aims of the field research
7.2 The research questions
7.3 The research methodology
7.4 Summary of the country studies
7.5 Issues and implications from the research findings
The purpose of the field research was to gather information about schools which have used agricultural experience of learners as a means of contextualising teaching and learning. The research examined the implications for teaching and learning practices, resources, school management and teacher training, and evaluated the impact of this practice on school attendance, school performance, development of school-community links, and on teacher, pupil and parental attitudes. Case studies were used to examine the capacity of agriculture to act as a familiar vehicle for the development of young rural learners' basic skills of literacy, numeracy, and other life skills which are perceived as necessary for a fruitful and productive life. The research attempted to highlight the problems which may arise in attempting to use agriculture in such an innovative way and aimed to identify examples of good practice which would be of use to educational policy makers and practitioners.
Based on the above aims, the main research question was developed:
· To what extent have rural primary schools attempted to use agricultural experience as a means of contextualising teaching and learning?
This main question was then sub-divided into nine specific research questions:
1. To what extent is contextualisation of teaching and learning reflected in education policy statements at different levels?2. What practices have teachers developed and used in order to contextualise learning?
3. What are the existing levels of knowledge, skill and attitude amongst teachers towards the process of contextualisation?
4. What are the attitudes of learners, community members and policy makers towards contextualisation?
5. What evidence is there to suggest that teachers use agricultural experience as a means of contextualising teaching and learning?
6. What factors enhance or constrain the use of agricultural experiences as a means of contextualising teaching and learning?
7. What is the impact of contextualisation on the process of teaching and learning?
8. What is the role of contextualisation in strengthening and developing linkages between the school, home and community environments?
9. What are the implications of contextualisation for educational planning and practice in the future?
The methodology was designed specifically for this research to find answers to the research questions detailed above. It proved through the use of a qualitative, triangulated approach to be very successful in meeting the aims of the research. The selection of countries for the study was made entirely on the basis of published papers that included, either directly or indirectly, some reference to contextualising teaching and learning in rural primary schools. In some cases (Tanzania and India) direct contact was made with the authors of the papers, who then became the collaborating partners. In the other countries (Ethiopia and Sri Lanka), following contact with the authors, recommendations were made to find appropriate collaborators.
Designing the methodology was a long process and required modifications before and during the fieldwork. The process started with the design of a table that detailed the key issues (identified from the research questions), methods of data collection, potential sources of data and the type of data to collect in order obtain information on the issues. Following this, eight case studies were carried out; these were located in two rural primary schools in each of four countries. Field work of one week in each school was undertaken to obtain an understanding of the particular school in relation to the key
issues. Schools were selected by the collaborating partners following a set of guidelines, the most important being as follows:
· One case study school was recognised as an "innovative" school, where a school is perceived to be innovative if it conforms to some or all of the following:* there is a degree of flexibility in the curriculum, either in the basic construction or in the way the teacher interprets it and teaches it;* children are encouraged and able to discuss issues in class;
* some attempt is made to use children's out of school experience in the learning process;
* teachers use and/or develop resources based around children's out of school experience and knowledge;
* there is some degree of continuous assessment;
* parents and community members have some involvement with the school;
* there is an attempt to use local technology in teaching and learning (resources relevant to local community and easily obtainable);
* there is some degree of integration of subject matter across the curriculum;
* some evidence of teacher support;
* some element of decentralisation.
· The second school was in the same vicinity as the first, but did not necessarily need to have a reputation for innovation (an 'average' school).
· Brief overviews of two more rural primary schools were undertaken through one day visits, in order to provide more supporting data for the case studies.
In the schools, data collection was through informal, semi-structured interviews and three participatory activities, namely order ranking, matrix ranking and mapping. Separate questionnaires were constructed for the headteacher, teachers (2 groups of 4 teachers per school), pupils (group interviews of 6 - 8 per group) and community members (group interviews of 4 - 6 per group). Matrix ranking, which involved ranking ten methods of learning against each other by preference, was undertaken by pupils and teachers. Pupils also completed mapping diagrams, a drawing activity that was designed to illustrate 'what pupils did at home', 'what pupils did at school' and whether there were any learning connections between the two environments. Classroom observations, along with the participatory activities, provided supporting evidence to the interviews and more information on the teaching and learning processes in the schools.
Semi-structured interviews were held with key informants (policy makers, educationalists, researchers, etc.) to obtain their views on the present state of education in the country. Appropriate literature and reports were also consulted to provide background information on the national, regional and local contexts of the school.
Full details of the methodology can be found in Volume II of this report.
Volume II of this report comprises four, detailed case studies based on the research in Tanzania, Sri Lanka, India and Ethiopia. In the following section, the conclusions from the findings are given only.
7.4.1 Tanzania
The findings of this research indicate that, in Tanzania, a very large gap exists between the plans made by centralised curriculum developers and educational policy makers on one hand and the reality of daily life in schools on the other. Problems exist in both urban and rural schools, some of which are very similar, such as dilapidated buildings and a lack of equipment, and others which are more area-specific. Urban schools tend to have much larger class sizes, of up to 150 pupils. Rural schools still suffer from large class sizes, but not to the same degree. On the other hand, rural schools suffer because their development depends largely on parental contributions, which in turn depends on parental perceptions of the value of education; many rural people have very little cash income and are becoming more reluctant to spend it on education which seems to be failing their children and themselves. This is because the goal of many parents is for their children to give them economic support in future years. This is less likely to happen if their children do not gain a place in secondary school, are unable to find employment, or lack the skills and knowledge which would enable them to set up business on their own. Hence the anticipated rates of return are much less, and the investment dries up from the grassroots. Teachers also are becoming demotivated as their salaries remain low and are difficult to obtain, especially in rural areas where transport is lacking or extremely expensive. Schools in rural areas also lack access to information, there being few radios or newspapers available, and even fewer visits from schools inspectors who have no transport to reach the remoter schools.
Many of the teachers who contributed their views in this research are disillusioned with their working conditions and the lack of opportunity for professional development. Constant curriculum changes, an inflexible examination system, few secondary school places and an over-reliance on books and materials which cannot be obtained are strangling the process of teaching and learning. Teachers resort frequently to physical punishment. Teachers' salaries are insufficient for normal living expenses. In order to ameliorate this situation, headteachers may try to reward their staff in some way, perhaps by giving them small presents occasionally, funded by proceeds from the school shamba, but this is impossible where a school has no land or opportunities for income generation. As a result, teachers "cannot afford life", as one headteacher put it, and look for other opportunities for income generation to the disadvantage of their pupils. For all these problems, some teachers are committed to their profession and "love teaching", saying that they would like to continue their careers as teachers. Many teachers interviewed, including some of those who are frustrated with their lot, mentioned that teaching is an important way of serving the community and of helping others.
A particularly worrying issue is the evidence for a link between parental income and educational progression of school children. Those who can afford it will pay for extra tuition for their children. If their children fail to gain a place in government secondary schools, they may pay for a place in a private school. The rate at which private schools, and even community-built day-secondary schools are increasing is worrying in itself, as the pool of experienced secondary school teachers is becoming more and more thinly spread. Thus the quality of teaching may be threatened at this level also. There is even the suggestion that teachers may deliberately underteach during normal lesson time to ensure that enough pupils will demand that their parents pay for "tuition". The quality of "tuition" itself is also suspect in some cases. According to one respondent, teachers advertise themselves as "good" teachers by dressing well and appearing confident in order to impress parents. "When they see us with good clothing, they think we are good teachers".
Contextualisation as a means of improving learning is close to Nyerere's original concept underlying "education for self-reliance". Teachers like the idea of it, as long as they feel in control of the situation to some degree, and are encouraged to adopt it as a strategy during their pre-service training programmes. The benefit of having a "picture in the mind" when learning was mentioned on several occasions. Parents appreciate the idea of linking schooling to the home environment, as long as intimate details and confidentialities are not betrayed. Pupils describe the learning process at home as easier than at school because there is the absence of pressure from time, and because they are not called upon to deal with complex abstract concepts. If these preconditions for effective learning could be incorporated partly into school learning, the level of achievement might be improved; many respondents cited overloading of teachers and pupils resulting in exhaustion and boredom and the complexity and irrelevance of the curriculum as major obstacles to learning and performance. The obstacles are sometimes increased by schools inspectors, who, on their rare visits to schools, are likely to be focusing on achievement of educational objectives through transmission of content rather than through an integrated learning process. Teachers may even be reprimanded for attempting to use innovative teaching methods which stray from the rigid structure of the teacher's guide.
There is certainly potential for agriculture to be used as a means of contextualising learning in rural Tanzanian primary schools where it is common that more than 95% of pupils come from an agricultural background. An important point arising from this country study, however, is that agriculture varies tremendously from region to region, and even from village to village. The income of farmers may also vary considerably, as does the level of their education. There are implications here for the strategies a teacher must adopt in order to relate a child's agricultural experience to the content of the curriculum, since it is essential to take into account this diversity of experience as well as to be sensitive to the nature of the child's home environment, be it financially and educationally supportive or quite the opposite.
It is important to note that a gulf between community and school priorities will have a deleterious effect on the effectiveness of teaching and learning practices. As stated by the District Academic Officer, "if authority at school is with the teachers and at home is with the parents, the pupils are caught in the middle". It is necessary to enable parents and teachers to work more closely together, in order to create a healthy climate in school. Appropriate teaching and learning strategies which link the home and school environments may help to bridge this gulf but in order to do this, teachers require training and support, and pupils and parents require information and reassurance that those aspects of their culture which they value are not threatened.
This study adds strong support to the idea that professional development of teachers is seen as a key to improving pupils' learning. Parents want to see the teachers of their children equipped to perform to their full capacity. Pupils expect teachers to be able to deliver the goods, enabling their children to progress to secondary school. Teachers rank training and support as the most important inputs they need. Policy makers want to see the teachers in their region receive training in order to motivate them and enable them to be more effective. Developments are taking place in other regions and districts to try to address this, such as the creation of teachers resource centres (funded by Dutch and Danish aid programmes), and the development of locally relevant curricula (funded by German aid programmes). Interventions such as these in the District where the research was carried out would be of great value to everyone involved in teaching and learning.
7.4.2 Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's education system has been developed over many centuries, and at present offers free education for all from year one through to university level. It has made concerted efforts to improve the quality of education, and a high literacy rate (88%) and low drop-out rate (4%) are among some of the country's achievements. Despite these and many other high achievements, the problem of remoteness and difficulty of access to rural primary schools still remains an unresolved problem, which in turn affects the effectiveness of these schools.
At present rural primary schools in Sri Lanka face many problems and the case study findings revealed the following general problems:
· Inequitable distribution of resources, both human (lack of trained teachers) and physical (lack of equipment), exist between urban and rural primary school;· Many disparities in the education system, especially between urban and rural schools;
· Poverty and health (malnourishment) are major problems which affect the pupils education;
· Handwriting skills are very bad because the pupils have no facilities in order to practice at home;
· Few reading materials are available to the pupils, such as newspapers, and many RPS's have no library;
· There are no media facilities such as television and radio;
· Many of the pupils will be unable to continue their schooling after year 9 because there are no transport facilities available;
· Classes are overcrowded and teachers are unable to manage in large schools due to poor skills in classroom organisation;
· Rural primary schools are getting smaller and teachers are not motivated in these schools as they receive no attention from school authorities (inspections or Master teachers);
· In some cases there is little parental support and lack of co-operation from the community;
· There is high absenteeism of pupils and teachers;
· Lack of infrastructure. Although transport on public buses is subsidised, often the problem is lack of bus service;
· Substantial variation between schools, divisions and provinces in the availability and deployment of primary teachers;
· Lack of incentives for all teachers, including primary level teachers, to serve in disadvantaged areas;
· Restricted opportunities for primary teachers to develop their careers within the field of primary education.
Apart from these general problems there are many macro-problems which specifically affect the effective functioning of rural primary schools, and especially those found in the poor and disadvantaged sectors of society. Interviews with officials from the National Institute of Education and findings from the field work identified many areas that need urgent action. Recent studies (NIE, 1995) have revealed that achievements of primary school children in Mathematics, Language and Life Skills are disturbingly poor and that disparities in achievement levels are usually high between urban and rural pupils and between those belonging to different provinces; less than 30% of primary level pupils complete schooling with mastery levels in numeracy and literacy.
Often teachers working in rural schools view their pupils as being ignorant because they come from low level socio-economic groups. These pupils, the majority of whom are likely to come from farming backgrounds, lead harsh lives in which their contribution to the family income must often come before their education. This leads to high levels of absenteeism during peak times in the agricultural year. The case studies illustrate that many children have very responsible jobs working on the farm, looking after the home and caring for younger brothers and sisters. They often work long hours and survive on low nutritional diets. They have little time and often no facilities for studying at home. No special support is offered to teachers in rural primary schools, and only a few selected schools get support from private donors. Many rural primary schools rarely, if ever, get visits from educational inspectors or master teachers who are often overworked, especially in rural areas where accessibility is difficult.
At present the education system is very examination oriented with children in years 1 and 2 already attending private lessons in preparation for the national scholarship exam in year 5. Many of those interviewed stated that the year 5 exam put too much pressure on pupils and should be eliminated. Consequently, slow learners, disadvantaged groups and the majority of the rural population are neglected in terms of the resources for their schools and by an urban biased curriculum. The learning needs of the rural sector are often different from those of the urban sector in terms of pupils' ambitions, opportunities available to them (many are physically unable to continue with their education because of transport problems) and parental attitudes to their education.
In the past few years, Sri Lanka has revised the primary school curriculum in an effort to move towards a 'pupil-centred' approach to learning. Teaching is, however, still 'teacher-centred' and this is primarily due to the pressure on teachers to cover the curriculum and prepare pupils for the national year 5 scholarship exam. Although the curriculum has been revised, the country is still working under the same education system, which needs to adapt in order that curriculum changes may be implemented successfully. Some educationalists believe there is an imperative need to modify the curriculum so that it is less academic and more orientated towards life skills and social skills. In academic subjects there needs to be more self learning, experiments and problem solving skills. More community involvement is needed along with more exposure to external situations so that children's general knowledge is improved. At present the curriculum is not really relevant to the lives of rural school children. Although the curriculum allows for some degree of flexibility by the teacher, during the fieldwork it was evident that few teachers knew this, or had any idea how to go about implementing their ideas. Teachers frequently stated that a contextualised approach to teaching and learning is a good idea, but they need more training and support in methods for implementing such an approach.
Contextualising teaching and learning is not recommended specifically in Sri Lanka's educational policy. The country is looking towards 'life long learning' with activity based curricula and self-learning activities, but these are not being practised. An external donor has undertaken a pilot project, however, which closely follows the theory and practice which underlies the contextualisation of teaching and learning, through the use of an agriculture plot and nutrition programme. Generally agriculture is considered to be a poor and uneducated person's livelihood. Using agriculture as a means for contextualising teaching and learning could lead to parents interpreting this as school agriculture lessons which are unpopular in some countries. During the case studies, however, this was rarely given as a constraint by parents. In fact, on a number of occasions, parents said that such an approach would make their children "better farmers". There is clear evidence from the pilot study in one school that such an approach makes learning more enjoyable for pupils and teachers, and parents seem also to appreciate it. During interviews with all sectors of the local community, the agricultural experimental plot and the nutrition programme in this school were referred to constantly. The community also is involved through the school providing a type of extension service following experiments it carries out on the agriculture plot.
7.4.3 India
India is a vast country with great variations and divides in culture, language, caste, religion and gender both between and within states. The immense population, the majority of whom live in rural areas, uneven development, and striking differences between the urban and rural populations, create an infinite and ever changing task for the country's development of education. Although enrolment is high, drop-out rates are also high and achievement levels are low. Nearly half of the population is illiterate, and the large disparity between sexes results in over 60% of adult illiterates being female.
India has declared that it will provide Education for All by the year 2000. This in itself is a huge undertaking, and will involve expansion of early childhood care and development, universalisation of elementary education, reduction in literacy, and provision of opportunities to maintain, use and upgrade education. Improving the content and process of education should be a high priority, 'to better relate to the environment, people's culture and with their living and working conditions, thereby enhancing their ability to learn and cope with the problems of livelihood and environment'. A recent report by the National Advisory Committee (1993), however, looks at the 'burden of learning' in the education system and the main problems associated with it, namely the emphasis on an education to gain elite qualifications, rather than a competence for doing useful things in life. This report states that 'both the teacher and the child have lost the sense of joy in being involved in an educational process. Teaching and learning have both become a chore for a great number of teachers and children.... the majority of our school-going children are made to view learning at school as a boring, even unpleasant and bitter experience'. Competency levels in reading, writing and numeracy of primary school children are estimated to be very low; at most only 30% of children have adequate competencies in these areas. Undue importance has been given to 'memory', instead of developing 'thinking' capabilities. To be effective, rural primary schools should equip the students to face the realities of the environment in which they live, and this is not being achieved in the current education system.
Teachers, parents and pupils all agreed that learning is easier when out of school experience is used and related to what is taught in school through the formal curriculum. They say it helps them understand things better, apply knowledge in practical daily life situations and see the relationship between knowledge from school and real life situations. Teachers confess they don't practice this pedagogy for a number of reasons. Teachers are generally unhappy with the training they received and feel that more support in this area would enable them to try out innovative teaching methods such as contextualising teaching and learning. They do not have the necessary skills to relate school knowledge to the daily life experiences of pupils because this was not covered in their training. At present schools have almost no input in curriculum development as responsibility is at state level. The curriculum is not relevant to the lives of the pupils, and there are many teaching-learning areas that cannot be related to practical, concrete real-life situations. The majority of teachers feel they can do little to improve their teaching practices, considering the lack of facilities and harsh conditions they work under. The rigid structure of the timetable, pressure on them to "cover" the curriculum according to a prescribed plan and the narrow requirements of the examination system allows them no flexibility to adopt innovative teaching methods. Teachers find it easier and feel more secure if they teach through books, which does not require great effort or creative, imaginative planning of learning experiences necessary for innovative teaching.
The belief that knowledge is gained by reading books and that it has very little to do with work or experience seems fixed in the minds of many parents, and is transferred to children also. Teachers feel answerable to parents, and presenting them with good exam marks will satisfy them; teachers and schools are held accountable through reference to exam results. The acquisition of such knowledge, measured through examination results, reinforces the belief that the concern of the school is to transmit knowledge to children in such a way that they can assimilate and reproduce it in the examinations. The curriculum and textbooks are essentially knowledge centred, with occasional reference to activities of a practical nature.
There is a lack of motivation and accountability amongst many teachers, especially in rural schools where there is limited scope and opportunity for professional improvements. In rural areas there is very little opportunity of recognition or appreciation of good, innovative work by these teachers. Regular monitoring and training, they believe, would encourage their professional development and increase motivation of themselves and their pupils. In terms of initial impressions of the two schools, there was a distinct difference. School A was well maintained and attractive to look at. On the other hand, school B was hardly recognisable as a school from the outside as it had no boundary and appeared run-down and neglected. The atmosphere within in the two schools again was noticeably different. Pupils appeared happy and enthusiastic in school A, in school B they were passive and shy. Even from this small case study it is evident that co-operation between the headteacher, teachers, and community members is vital in forming a supportive learning environment for the pupil. The fieldwork illustrated that teachers', parents', community members' and pupils' perceptions of education and their views on knowledge are important factors in using a contextualised approach to teaching and learning. Their perceptions of agriculture are important if such an approach were to use agricultural experience. The role of a good teacher, invariably, is of one who is knowledgeable and a repository of information. Learning is also seen as something done out of a book and transferred to an exam paper. The desperately low competency rates in basic subjects illustrates a need for change in the education system. The community should play an important role in changing parental perceptions of education, and contextualising the process could be an important approach to achieving these aims of developing 'thinking' rather than 'memory' capabilities, along with strengthening linkages between the learning environments of school, home and community.
7.4.4 Ethiopia
Ethiopia has over the past few decades seen many changes to its education system due to economic and political change. A document by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1994) states that there has been a gradual decline in the quality of education which has been pronounced in the past two decades. Factors such as scarcity of instructional materials, overcrowding, inadequate school buildings and a decline in the quality of teacher training have contributed to the problem. Moreover, the curriculum lacked relevance with no clearly defined objectives. Instruction concentrated more on theoretical knowledge with little connection to daily life. The approach lacked problem solving skills with a high tendency towards rote learning. Participation rates at all levels were very low with disproportionately low female representation, and the few schools available were mainly located in urban areas. The government (1994) states that almost all of the junior and secondary schools, with a total enrolment of 12% of the eligible age group, are located in the medium and large towns. Nearly 60% of rural communities have no schools. The poor access to primary schooling for children in rural areas was revealed during the fieldwork when a number of children said that they had walked long distances, taking up to two hours, to attend school. Poverty is another main reason for not attending school as children are needed to work at home where food production is likely to be a higher priority than education. During the fieldwork it was clear that many children, both boys and girls, are involved in agricultural activities daily. Pupils mentioned that homework had to be done at school because they had too much work to do at home. Overall enrolment rates are low; UNICEF (1995) estimate the primary school enrolment ratio (gross) at 25% over 1986-92.
Ethiopia's Education Sector Strategy (1994) states that 'the main objective of any educational system is to cultivate the individual's capacity for problem solving and adaptability to the environment by developing the necessary knowledge, ability, skill and attitude', 'in this respect the existing educational curriculum of Ethiopia had not been properly developed to meet the societal and pedagogical demands', 'the curriculum is irrelevant and with no clearly defined objectives, the teaching concentrates more on theoretical knowledge with little connection to day to day life. The approach is not problem solution and students mainly rote learn'. The strategy for education frequently refers to the use of the pupil's experiences in teaching and learning, the need for more innovative teaching methods and the need for more relevance in the curriculum such that, 'the content of the curriculum will be revised to be relevant to the needs of the community', 'the science teaching will emphasise application and will be properly linked with day to day activities of the student', 'the teaching/learning process shall emphasise problem solving by making the curriculum more relevant and by adopting appropriate teaching methods'.
There was little evidence to suggest that teachers knowingly contextualise their teaching and learning practices in the schools visited. Reasons included a general lack of resources, time constraints, overcrowded classrooms and poor teacher training that does not prepare teachers for using innovative teaching methods, or for making use of local resources in their teaching practices. A new curriculum has been developed for use in primary level teacher training, and this follows the objectives of the new educational policy. Trained teachers, however, have only received minimal training in using the new curriculum and most teachers interviewed were disappointed with the level of training they had received in order to implement the new curriculum. During fieldwork, discussions with teachers revealed a keen interest to know more about the idea of contextualising teaching and learning. As a process it was not one they were familiar with, but they felt it would be quite easy for them to practice because of pupils' daily contact with agriculture. A major objective of the previous curriculum was 'education for production'; so agriculture was taught as a separate subject and all schools had agriculture plots and agricultural teachers. The new curriculum for basic education focuses on a general curriculum where agriculture is incorporated into subject areas such as science.
In the 'innovative' school, teachers were trying hard to make learning relevant to pupils. During interviews with pupils they were able to easily identify areas where agriculture had been brought into subject areas. The most frequent example given was measuring land area in a maths lesson. Teachers gave examples, such as a maths lesson in which pupils were asked to calculate the number of radishes they could plant in a certain area. They say that implementation of ideas and concepts involving agriculture are taken up more and greater interest is shown. In this particular school, pupils placed a strong emphasis on teachers being able to 'explain by giving illustrations and examples so that lessons can be easily remembered'; they also mentioned that a good teacher 'uses different teaching methodologies'. Generally parental attitudes were agreeable to such an approach. They appreciate their children telling them about their school work, particularly if parents also gain something from their children's schooling, for example new agricultural technologies or practices to improve general health. Where practices have been transferred to the community (e.g. vegetable growing and water filtration), it has proved to link the community with the school and has improved parental awareness of the importance of a basic education. Many teachers are past pupils of the school which appears to have helped in linking the school and community.
Agriculture as a subject was incorporated previously into curricula so resources for initiating a contextualised approach to teaching and learning, through the use of agricultural experience, are in abundance. As the majority of children come from agricultural backgrounds, and experience agricultural practices daily, it is an area extremely familiar to them. Parents' and teachers' attitudes to a contextualised approach to teaching and learning are very positive. Teachers already try to use pupils' experiences in their teaching practices but many feel they do not have sufficient training to enable them to use this knowledge effectively in teaching new concepts. The new curriculum is relevant to pupils' lives and does allow teachers to use their own examples and bring outside experiences into classroom learning. Despite the poor condition of schools and a general lack of resources, teachers state their main problem is insufficient training to enable them to implement the new curriculum.
In this section, summaries of the main conclusions of the case studies have indicated key areas of importance which emerged during the research, both in terms of general issues relating to rural primary school education, and some specific issues relating to contextualisation of teaching and learning.
The final section of this report will highlight some of the most critical issues, and discuss some implications of contextualising teaching and learning which arise from the literature and from the findings of the field research. These may be of value for the future development and application of the concepts presented in this paper.