8.1 Issues
8.2 Implications for contextualising teaching and learning
8.3 Opportunities for further research and intervention
8.1.1 Recognition of contextualisation of teaching and learning in education policy statements.
The education policy statements of many countries emphasise the importance of relating the content of the curriculum and the processes of teaching and learning to the local environment. In most countries a national curriculum is still produced centrally, although there is a tendency towards decentralised educational planning. This latter movement is compromised somewhat by the retention of control over a national examination system by central planners. Contextualisation of teaching and learning is not mentioned explicitly in national policy documents, but the underlying concepts appear to be appreciated and approved by those in positions of influence at a national level. The desire is expressed often to make the curriculum relevant to the local environment, and to encourage teachers to develop teaching practices which relate the content of the curriculum to the local context. What is lacking in most situations, however, is the support and infrastructure at local level to enable teachers to put the policy into practice. A number of national and international NGOs and donor agencies are encouraging teachers to develop and use innovative practices such as improved and more appropriate methods of teaching and learning, and alternative ways of interpreting the curriculum. In time, influence such as this may bring about a more widespread realisation of the value of contextualisation by national policy makers and encourage them to facilitate its practice through interventions at local level.
8.1.2 Teachers efforts to contextualise learning.
The most common pedagogical approach used in rural primary schools in developing countries is still "chalk and talk". When chalk or a blackboard are not available, the result is teachers talking. Pupils in the "average" schools visited in this research were rarely required to participate actively in lessons, other than to repeat by rote what had been said by the teacher or to sing and clap. Project work and topic-based learning were not in evidence in the majority of the schools. In all four countries in the study, the school timetable is divided into short periods and is subject-based, so that teachers are impelled to cover a certain amount of the subject matter as laid down in the teachers' guide. Teaching aids and materials, particularly those which relate to the local context, are often in short supply or lacking altogether. Regular teacher absences means that a great deal of "catching-up" has to be done as well, leaving little time available in the lesson for teachers to try anything other than "banking" of knowledge. Evaluation of learning is also extremely difficult for teachers in those countries where large numbers of pupils crammed into small desks in a dark classroom is the norm. Demotivation of teachers due to the many constraints which they face on a daily basis tends to discourage interest in the development of innovative practices, and the absence of regular support means that those teachers who do experiment with alternative teaching and learning methods feel unsure and unconfident whether they are on the right track.
Even with these constraints, however, there is evidence from the field research and from the literature that many teachers do attempt to contextualise learning by relating the content of the curriculum to the experience of their pupils. This is achieved by using examples with which pupils are thought to be familiar. Health and nutrition topics are often related to the home situation. Where agriculture is taught as a subject area, the pupils' experience of their family's farming is drawn upon in many cases. Even though such strategies are common, it becomes clear from the case studies that the majority of teachers who use such a practice are not aware of its real potential. They realise that pupils seem to understand an abstract concept more easily when examples are given with which the pupils are familiar. Planning of such strategies seems rare, however. Often examples are given on an ad hoc basis when it becomes clear that a concept is proving difficult to understand. Some teachers interviewed during the research stated that the value of using locally relevant examples had been discussed during pre-service training, but they could not recall or suggest ways in which such a practice could be planned. Some teachers' guides and pupils' textbooks use examples which are supposedly familiar to children, but many of these examples are urban-based, or are actually unfamiliar to a large proportion of the school population.
Photo 1 'free drawing activity', India (School A)
Views expressed by teachers through interviews and ranking exercises suggest that they appreciate the value of contextualising teaching and learning and would like to learn more about it. The researchers experienced difficulty initially in reaching a common understanding of the concept of contextualisation with teachers. In fact, teachers were being asked to reflect on their pedagogical practice in this research, and it was clear that they were rarely called upon to do this explicitly in their normal working lives. From ranking exercises, teachers in all the countries studied stated that they preferred to give examples and use practical activities as a means of helping pupils learn. The way in which teachers interpreted certain pedagogical practices varied, however. "Practical" activities in some schools meant pupils writing exercises, for example. The discussions which emanated from the ranking exercises did help to highlight these differences. Pupils also interpreted methods of teaching and learning in different ways, which emphasised the complexity of methodological planning for teachers with limited awareness of pedagogical approaches or the confidence to use them.
Photo 2 'geography lesson', Ethiopia (School A)
On several occasions, teachers stated that they had learned a lot from being involved in the research process, and would even use some of the methods developed to gather information in their own teaching. On two occasions when return visits were made to case study schools, innovative strategies were observed being put into practice; for example a class in India carrying out "free drawing" (Photo 1) and a group of pupils in Ethiopia creating a map of the village in the school garden using earth and sowing flower seeds (Photo 2). This suggests that the practice of some teachers may be influenced greatly by support and opportunities for professional development.
8.1.3 Evidence for the use of agricultural experience by teachers as a means of contextualising teaching and learning.
In rural schools, agricultural experience and materials from the local environment are utilised by some teachers as a basis for teaching and learning. The case studies reveal some examples where pupils bring in agricultural materials such as plants and seeds, or foodstuffs, which are then used to illustrate abstract concepts. This technique was found to be used in mathematics teaching (Photo 3). Pupils were sometimes taken by their teachers to the school garden or neighbouring farms where they performed activities which are based on and related to non-agricultural subject areas such as geography. Farming themes are frequently used as a basis for language teaching, and agricultural topics and examples appear in many school textbooks, such as the examples provided earlier in this report.
Photo 3 'mathematics lesson', Sri Lanka (School A)
8.1.4 Factors which influence the use of agricultural experiences as a means of contextualising teaching and learning.
The research has revealed a number of factors which seem to influence the use of agricultural experience as a means of contextualising teaching and learning. Firstly, support for teachers seems crucial. This may come from the headteacher, from pupils, from other teachers, parents, policy makers and schools advisors or inspectors. Donor support or recognition of a school as a "model" or "pilot" school does seem also to raise the prestige of the school in the locality. This in turn seems to be a motivating factor for teachers and pupils, and encourages community members and parents to be more supportive of the school and its activities.
The influence of the headteacher in a school seems, central to the development and use of innovative teaching practices. Where a collegial atmosphere is created, and staff of a school feel that they can discuss freely problems and complex situations with each other regardless of position in the school hierarchy, experimentation and innovation has an opportunity to flourish. Support from the local education authority is also important. In some cases, schools inspectors discourage teachers from attempting to use alternative methods of teaching and learning for fear that the situation might go out of control. Although national policy statements favour the use of contextualisation in schools,
teachers' guides do not seem to reflect this, and so teachers feel wary about moving away from what is laid down on the printed page, even though they may be surrounded by rich and varied resources outside the classroom and school environment. The rigidity of many primary school curricula discourages teachers from moving beyond the boundaries of the subject area, and frequent curriculum changes leave teachers feeling that they have enough to cope with just to cover the subject matter. Large class sizes, shortage of time, and a lack of confidence in dealing with classroom organisation all contribute to teachers feeling that they cannot move easily beyond the use of traditional talk-based teaching.
Some rural schools do not have land or gardens on which they can carry out agricultural activities, and it is felt by teachers that this constrains the use of agricultural examples in the teaching of other subject areas. A lack of knowledge of local agricultural practices is cited by many teachers as another reason they are reluctant to draw on agricultural experience; pupils may have more knowledge in this area than the teachers. This should not be seen as a major constraint however; since most rural schools are surrounded by vast areas of agricultural land; many local farmers are themselves parents of school pupils, and often would welcome visits from teachers and pupils.
8.1.5 The attitudes of primary school pupils, community members and policy makers towards contextualisation.
Just as the teachers favour the process of contextualising teaching and learning, those pupils, community members and policy makers interviewed seem also to think that it is a practice worth utilising and would like to explore its potential. Many respondents stressed how important it is to base new learning on what is known already. There is no doubt that education is still viewed as being a very important factor in the lives of young people, and a successful outcome of primary education is expected, especially bearing in mind the considerable investment made in it. Generally, the main target for pupils at the end of primary schooling is to pass their examinations. Many members of rural communities who have a very low income are prepared to offer part of the little money or materials they have to assist with the development of their local school or, in some cases, to further the chances of their children progressing to secondary school by paying for private tuition. Parents and pupils interviewed were of the opinion that schools should do whatever is necessary to give pupils the best chance of achieving a successful outcome from primary schooling. A strategy such as contextualisation which seems, logically, to lead towards better opportunities for school pupils to perform well is very attractive to them.
There are certain attitudinal issues which work against contextualisation being used effectively, however. Discussion of home life and the domestic situation is taboo in some societies. Some parents feel uncomfortable with the knowledge that their children may discuss openly what is thought to be intimate and private to the family. Discussion between children and parents is often difficult anyway, due to societal norms about acceptable relationships between adults and children. Many children emphasise the value of learning to be respectful to elders and find speaking openly to a teacher in a class rather daunting. This situation does depend on the attitude of the teacher as well, however. Teachers who had established a rapport and unthreatening relationship with the pupils in their class are more likely to tolerate and welcome classroom discussion, and even pupils presenting ideas or writing on the blackboard. For some teachers, this type of activity is very threatening, and it was stated even by teachers who were supportive generally of contextualisation that there was a high risk element involved when asking pupils to talk about their experiences openly.
8.1.6 The role of contextualisation in strengthening and developing linkages between the school, home and community environments.
Earlier in this report it was stated that the learner can play a vital role in strengthening linkages between the three "learning environments" of the school, the home and the community. Contextualisation can, in theory, enable the learner to link the learning experiences in these three environments. The teacher, by contextualising teaching and learning can facilitate this process. From the research findings, it becomes clear that this does happen.
Parental support for their children's schooling is an important factor; parents in rural communities seem to find it easier to understand what their children are learning when it is based in a context with which the parents themselves are familiar. They feel able to talk to their children and are not embarrassed by their apparent ignorance of "school knowledge" if the learning, even that centred around abstract concepts, is familiar to them. From discussions it was noted that many children
relate differently to their fathers than to their mothers. Evidence from the studies suggests that fewer mothers have completed or had the advantage of primary education than fathers. In many societies, young children seem to communicate more easily with their mothers than with their fathers, for social and cultural reasons, and mothers who cannot relate to the experience of schooling may become frustrated, as do their children who feel unable to talk to them about what they have learned at school. This emphasises the importance of girls' education, as those who become mothers themselves will have to face a similar situation; maternal support to school children would seem to be a very critical factor. Lubben et al (1996) have noted that at secondary school level, girls seem to find contextualised materials more attractive, and these may assist them to learn difficult concepts more effectively than through traditional methods which tend to favour boys. At primary school level an implication of this is that, through improved teaching and learning, the numbers of girls who leave school with higher levels of achievement and qualifications may increase. In turn this may result in greater numbers of female teachers, and also more women with a more positive perception of schooling, therefore encouraging more girls to attend school. Contextualised teaching and learning may become a positive factor in improving the opportunities for girls to achieve success in primary schooling.
In the field research there was considerable discussion with pupils, teachers and community members about what "real learning" consists of. School pupils from several countries wondered whether learning subjects through the medium of agriculture was "real". What is learned at home, and particularly, what is learned about agriculture through personal experience seems often to be undervalued because of the elevation of school learning to a more prestigious position. Integrating agricultural experience into more traditional "academic", and hence more highly valued, subject areas may help to break down the barriers between the different learning environments, and thus create a more conducive learning context. It is vital, however, that any agricultural component or reference introduced through a process of contextualisation is integrated in an appropriate and meaningful way. Parents should be aware that reference to agriculture or the local environment is not diminishing the value of schooling in any way, but instead creating the potential for an outcome from primary education which they feel is very desirable for themselves and for their children. Otherwise there is a strong likelihood that such an innovation would be rejected outright.
The research findings show that the learning environment in many rural primary schools still leaves much to be desired. In particular the following problems, which were identified during the field work, seem common to most rural primary schools:
The School Environment
General problems in the school system
· Inequitable distribution of resources, both human (lack of trained teachers) and physical (lack of equipment), between urban and rural primary schools;· disparities in the education system, especially between urban and rural schools;
· falling enrolment in many rural primary schools, and unmotivated teachers in these schools as they receive no attention from school authorities (inspections or master teachers);
· substantial variation between schools and regions in the availability and deployment of primary teachers;
· lack of incentives for all teachers, including primary level teachers, to serve in rural and disadvantaged areas;
· restricted opportunities for primary teachers to develop their careers within the field of primary education;
· low salaries which are not paid on time;
· poor conditions (housing, transport).
Pedagogical problems:
· lack of in-service training or support for professional development;· lack of knowledge and skills in terms of content, methods of teaching and teaching aid development;
· teachers unable to manage in large schools due to poor skills in classroom organisation;
· overloading.
Problems relating to the curriculum
· new curricula being introduced but not ready on time, and constantly changing;· teachers are not consulted about curriculum development;
· overcrowded curricula with too much content to cover in the time available;
· textbook and teachers' guide development and availability does not keep up with changes in curriculum;
· recommended equipment and resources not available, especially for practical activities;
· much of the content not relevant to the lives of rural children;
· more emphasis needed on "foundation" subjects (maths, science, English, agriculture);
· lesson periods too short and restrictive.
Physical problems within the school
· few reading materials available to the pupils, such as newspapers, and many rural primary schools have no library;· few media facilities such as television and radio and often no access to an electrical supply;
· overcrowding and large classes;
· high absenteeism of pupils and teachers;
· lack of teaching aids;
· lack of textbooks and teachers' guides which often do not arrive on time;
· lack of stationery and no money available to buy materials;
· shortage of classrooms;
· buildings in poor condition;
· shortage of desks and furniture (cupboards, tables, chairs);
· school area too small which restricts the space available for a school garden/agriculture plot or a sports field;
· few first aid facilities or a trained first aider;
· shortage of teachers' housing;
· either no staffroom or insufficient space for staff;
· inadequate school security.
The Home Environment
· poverty which leads to pupils being kept at home to work on the farm, to look after siblings or to work in other labour;· poor health and malnourishment of pupils;
· no facilities available for pupils to do school work at home;
· parents cannot afford to buy their children basic equipment (pens, chalk) for school;
· no parental support; a demotivating factor for pupils;
· lack of parental awareness to the importance of their children's education.
The Community Environment
· lack of co-operation from the community in aiding the school;· poor infrastructure (transport) preventing pupils from continuing their education in areas where secondary/high schools are not nearby;
· occasional desire by community members to control school activities;
· unreliable water supply or absence of clean water locally;
· vandalism at the school
8.2.1 Conditions necessary to introduce innovative teaching and learning methods
Certain conditions in rural primary schools make innovative approaches to teaching and learning difficult to introduce. The most crucial appear to be:
· large class sizes;· too many short lesson periods per day, each allocated to a different discipline;
· lack of basic materials for teaching aid development;
· lack of support by schools inspectors and teacher trainers who fail to visit schools, or try to enforce traditional practices which are inappropriate;
· lack of in-service training and support which could free teachers, mentally, to experiment;
· poor motivation of teachers;
· increasing numbers of young teachers entering teaching who would prefer to be doing something else and are incapable of teaching large sections of the curriculum;
· the inflexible, centralised curriculum development and examinations system.
Certain conditions do support the use of contextualised teaching and learning in rural primary schools, however:
· enthusiasm of teachers to do the best for their pupils;· enthusiasm of pupils to perform well;
· enthusiasm and support of many parents for schooling, especially from those who have themselves received an education;
· a willingness amongst parents to encourage their children to discuss their schooling, and to offer help with problems and recognition of their achievements in school;
· the supportive nature of teachers towards each other, especially from the headteacher;
· the close relationship between many rural schools and their surrounding community;
· improved progression rates of primary school pupils to secondary schools, taking some psychological pressure off teachers;
· the vast resource base surrounding schools, which is almost entirely agricultural;
· the real demand from all parties for teachers to be provided with professional development in terms of pre- and in-service teacher training;
· teachers who hail from the local community in which the school is located;
· the presence of an agriculture teacher in the school, or teachers who have a knowledge and understanding of the local agricultural context, in order to use agricultural experience as a means of contextualising teaching and learning;
· land available within the school, for agricultural-based activities.
Teacher training and support is a critical factor if the process of contextualisation is to be adopted in rural primary schools. Teachers need to reflect on their pedagogical practices, and to question their attitudes towards "real learning". Many teachers do use a range of excellent practices on a daily basis, but they may not be aware that they are in fact doing this. Awareness of successful approaches to teaching and learning will certainly contribute to the development of more innovative strategies. Finally, if teachers, pupils and community members can develop a view of education as a good in itself, then there is a far greater chance of building a learning environment which has a chance of achieving real success.
This research has revealed many opportunities for further research into the contextualisation of teaching and learning in rural primary schools. There does seem to be potential for some of the many problems discussed in this paper to be addressed through the development of models and strategies for education programmes which are based on a process of contextualisation. As discussed here, attempts have been made to adjust the content of the curriculum so that it becomes relevant to local conditions by introducing "localised" topics and activities, for example, through the "community school" movement. Teachers rarely have been involved in this process, however, and relatively little emphasis has been placed on the development of appropriate strategies for curriculum development or teaching and learning based on the immediate context in which the school is located. The process of contextualisation enables teachers in primary and secondary schools to interpret the content of the curriculum (which may be designed nationally, or at local level but still non-negotiable) by relating it explicitly to the local environment, and this may prove to be a means of implementing the rhetoric of decentralising the curriculum process.
As described above, prerequisites for such a process to yield successful outcomes include favourable school structures and systems and a supportive policy environment. Opportunities should exist for cross-subject work and whole-staff development. The support of parents is vital, especially where strategies utilise the integration of pupils' home experience into the learning process. Parents should be aware, therefore, that a contextualised process of education will not inhibit their children's access to activities outside rural areas. The existence of productive, complementary linkages between school, home and community is of great importance, and it is necessary to break down existing barriers. Contextualisation of the curriculum will by its very nature involve the wider community, thus making it accountable to the community in which it is taught. It is desirable that parents increase the level of their support for the school-based education of their children. An holistic approach to community education, which addresses the learning needs and aspirations of community members both in and out of school, for example involving literacy programmes, may help to overcome many of the problems associated with the provision of education in rural areas.
With these points in mind, it is suggested here that the following areas are worthy of research and intervention:
· encouragement and facilitation of the development of educational practices (teaching and learning strategies, development of learning materials, assessment and evaluation procedures, curriculum development), which value and take into account the knowledge, experience and culture of members of schools and the wider community;· provision of training and support for teachers and trainers in rural primary schools and in the local community who will base strategies for teaching and learning on a process of contextualisation;
· facilitation of the development of structures and functions in schools and training organisations which complement and support the process of contextualisation adopted by teachers;
· evaluation of the impact of contextualised learning on the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes of learners, in schools and in the wider community;
· evaluation of the impact of contextualised learning on community productivity levels, employment, and on academic progression of learners and teachers;
· studies of the effect of contextualisation strategies on parental opinion of the value of schooling. As a result of research and intervention in these areas, the following outcomes may be achieved:
· self-supporting groups of teachers and trainers with the capacity to adapt and develop curricula, within the framework of educational policy, through a process of contextualisation;
· creation and adoption by rural schools and training organisations of structures and functions which support and enable the process of contextualisation;
· readily adaptable, sustainable resources of innovative methods and materials for training, teaching and learning, shared and disseminated through networks of teachers and trainers;
· strategies and models for planners and practitioners which may facilitate the integration of experience and knowledge of learners into basic and community education programmes in different locations;
· indicators and guidelines for decision makers at national and international level to consider when planning the overall structure of school and community education programmes, and to assist donors in making policy decisions relating to educational funding.
The research on which this report is based has shown that many teachers, community members and policy makers have demonstrated the willingness and ability to innovate in order to create the most effective learning environment for children in rural primary schools. Considering the difficulties faced in schools in rural areas of many countries throughout the world, teachers in particular are to be wholly commended, encouraged and supported in their goal to enable children to benefit from schooling.
