VILLAGE
TECHNOLOGY
HANDBOOK
Volunteers in Technical Assistance
1815 NORTH LYNN STREET
Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA,
Village Technology Handbook
Copyright [C] 1988 Volunteerses in Technical Assistance
All rights reserved. No part of this publication May be reproduced or transmitted
in any, or by any molds means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording, or any piece of information storage and retrieval system, without the written,
permission of the publisher.
, This is the third edition of at manual ridge published in 1963, with the support of
the U. S. Agency for internationally Development, and revised in 1970, which has,
gone through eight major printings.,
Manufactured in the United States of America.
Set in Time's novel character on at IBM personnel computers, at poison to VITA from
Internationally business Machines Corporation, using WordPerfect software donated
by WordPerfect Corporation.
Published by: Volunteers in Technical Assistance
1815 North Lynn Street, suite 200,
Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA,
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Village technology handbook.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. 413
1.
Building--Amateurs' manual. 2. Do-it-yourself work. 3. Home economics,
Rural--Handbooks, manual, etc I. Volunteers in Technical Assistance.
TH148.V64 1988 620 ' .41734 S 88-5700
ISBN 0-86619-275-1
VILLAGE TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
NOTES ON USING THE HANDBOOK
ABOUT VITA
SYMBOL'S AND ABBREVIATIONS
WATER RESOURCES
wr1.gif (393x393)
Developing Water Sources
Getting Ground Water from Wells and Springs
GROUND WATER
FLOW OF WATER TO WELLS
Where To Dig at corrugate
Well Casing and Seal
Well Development
Tubewells
Well Casing and Platforms
Hand-Operated triplet Equipment
Dry Bucket corrugate triplet
DRIVEN WELLS
Dug Wells
Sealed Dug Well
Deep Dug Well
RECONSTRUCTING DUG WELLS
Jump Development
Water Lifting and transportation
Overview
MOVING WATER
LIFTING WATER
Water transportation
ESTIMATING SMALL STREAM WATER FLOW
Measuring Water Flow in Partially Filled Pipes
DETERMINING PROBABLE FLOW WITH KNOWN RESERVIOR HEIGHT AND
SIZE AND LENGTH OF PIPE
Estimating Water Flow from horizontally Pipes
Determining Pipe Size or Velocity of Water in Pipes
Estimating Flow Resistance of Pipe fittings
BAMBOO PIPING
Water Lifting
credit Specifications:
Choosing or Evaluating at credit
Determining credit Capacity and Horsepower Requirements
Determining elevator credit Capability
Simple pump
Chain credit for Irrigation
Inertia hand credit
handle Mechanism for hand pump
HYDRAULIC RAM
Reciprocating Wire power transmission for Water pump
Wind Energy for Water Pumping
OVERVIEW
DECISION MAKING PROCESS
Water Storage and Treatment
Cisterns
Cistern tank
CATCHMENT AREA
Cistern filters
Selecting at Dam Site
CATCHMENT AREA
RAINFALL
LOCATION
Water Purification
hot water tanks for Drinking Water
CHLORINATING WELLS, SPRINGS, AND CISTERNS
Water Purification Plant
sand filters
HEALTH AND SANITATION
Sanitary Latrines
Overview
PRIVY LOCATION
PRIVY SHELTERS
Privy type
PIT PRIVY
WATER PRIVY
Philippine Water-Seal latrine
Thailand Water-Seal Privy Slab
Bilharziasis
The Parasites
Symptom's and Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Ridding at Area of Bilharziasis
Malaria Control
Community Preventive Measures
Personnel Preventive Measures
Treatment
Oral Rehydration Therapy
DEHYDRATION--AT LIFE-THREATENING CONDITION
Treating or Preventing Dehydration
AGRICULTURE
Earth Moving Devices for Irrigation and Road Building
Drag Grader
Fresno Scraper
Barrel Fresno Scraper
CONSTRUCTION
operation
REPAIRING THE BARREL FRESNO SCRAPER
ADAPTING FOR HEAVY DUTY
Float with Adjustable Bl-farewell
Buck Scraper
V-Drag
Multiple Hitches
Irrigation
Siphon Tubes
Using Tile for Irrigation and Drainage
MAKING AT CONCRETE TILE MACHINE
MAKING THE TILE
Seeds, Weeds, and Pests
Seed Cleaner
Seed Cleaning Sieves
Drying Grain with of Wooden block
Preparing the of block
Using the of block
Bucket Sprayer
Forecastle-pack Crop Duster
HOW THE DUSTER OPERATES
ADJUSTING THE DUSTER
FILLING THE DUSTER
MAKING SPRINGS FOR THE DUSTER
Poultry Raising
Brooder with Corral for 200 Chickses
Kerosene Lamp Brooder for 75 to 100 Chickses
Brooder for 300 Chickses
Bamboo Poultry House
HOUSE
ROOF
FEEDERS
nest
Poultry Feed Formulas
Intensive Gardening
The Soil
The Growing Beds
Fertilizing the Soil
Selection of Crops
Mulch
Silage for Dairy Cows
FOOD PROCESSING AND PRESERVATION
Storing food at Home
How to Care of for Various child of food
Dairy food
FRESH MEAT, FISH, POULTRY
EGGS
FRESH FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
FATS AND OILS
BAKED GOODS
Dried food
CANNED GOODS
Leftover Cooked of food
Food Spoilage
When is food Spoiled?
Why food Spoils
Container's for food
type's of container
Care of food of container
The Storage Area
Good ventilation
Keep the Storage Area Cool and Dry
KEEP THE STORAGE AREA CLEAN
Keeping food's cool
Evaporative food cooler
Iceless Cooler
Window box
Other Ways To of Keep food cool
Storing Vegetables and Fruits for winters Use
Mail Plank Cellar
Cabbage Pits
Storage Cones
Fish Preservation
Salting Fish
PREPARING THE FISH
SALTING
WASHING AND DRYING TO REMOVE EXCESS SALT
air Drying
USING SALTED FISH
Tuxedo Fish
CONSTRUCTION
Concrete Construction
Overview
IMPORTANCE OF AT GOOD MIXTURE
aggregate:
Gravel and sand
WATER
Calculating Amounts of of material for Concrete
USING THE " CONCRETE CALCULATOR "
USING THE WATER DISPLACEMENT METHOD
USING " RULE OF THUMB " PROPORTIONS
Mixing Concrete
MAKING AT MIXING BOAT OR FLOOR
Slump tests
Making Forms for Concrete
Placing Concrete in Forms
Curing Concrete
Quick-Setting Concrete
Bamboo Construction
Preparing Bamboo
SPLITTING BAMBOO
BAMBOO PRESERVATION
Bamboo joints
Bamboo boards
Bamboo embankment, Partitions, and Ceilings
embankment
PARTITIONS
CEILINGS
Stabilized Earth Construction
Overview
Soil Characteristics
Testing the Soil
Composition test
Compaction test
Shrinkage test
Making Adobe block
Making Compressed Earth of block and Tiles
Building with Stabilized of Earth block
Construction Glues
Casein Glue
MAKING CASEIN POWDER
MIXING CASEIN GLUE
USING CASEIN GLUE
Liquid Fish Glue
HOME IMPROVEMENT
Simple Washing Machines
Plunger character Clothes Washer
MAKING THE WASHER
USING THE WASHER
Hand-Operated Washing Machine
MAKING THE WASHING MACHINE
USING THE WASHING MACHINE
Cookers and Stoves
Fireless Cooker
MAKING THE FIRELESS COOKER
USING THE FIRELESS COOKER
Charcoal Oven
HOW TO BUILD THE OVEN
HOW TO USE THE OVEN
Portable Metal Cookstoves
PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY-EFFICIENT STOVES
Cookstove design
PRODUCING THE COOKSTOVES
Outdoor Oven
Home Soap Making
Two Basic Methods
Ingredients for Soap
FATS AND OILS
LYE
borax
PERFUME
WATER
Soap Making with Commercial Lye
RECIPES
HOW TO MAKE THE SOAP
HOW TO KNOW GOOD SOAP
RECLAIMING UNSATISFACTORY SOAP
Soft Soap with Lye Leached from Ashes
LEACHING THE LYE
MAKING THE SOAP
Larger-Scale Soap Making
Bedding
At nest of Low-Cost Beds
How To Make at Mattress
MAKING THE MATTRESS
MAKING AT ROLLED EDGE
CRAFTS AND VILLAGE INDUSTRY
Pottery
Waste-Oil Fired Kiln
COST ADVANTAGES OF WASTE OIL
design of Kiln and Fire box
OPERATING THE KILN
Small Rectangular Kiln
CONSTRUCTION
FIRING
Salt Glaze for Pottery
CONSIDERATIONS
HOW TO FIRE THE POTTERY
Hand Papermaking
Papermaking Processes
PRE-PROCESSING
PULPING
LIFTING, COUCHING, STACKING
PRESSING AND DRYING
SIZING
CALENDERING
SORTING AND CUTTING
Making Paper in the Small Workshop
PULPING
MAKING THE SHEETS
PRESSING AND DRYING
SIZING AND COATING
Making Paper in the Micro-Factory
Candle Making
Making the Jigs
Preparing the Wax
Dipping the Candles
COMMUNICATIONS
Bamboo or Reed Writing Pens
Silk Screen Printing
Building the Silk Screen Printer
Printing
PREPARING À PAPER STENCIL
Making Silk Screen Paint
Inexpensive Rubber Cement
REFERENCES
CONVERSION TABLES
FOREWORD
The Village Technology Handbook has been at important tool for development
workers and do-it-yourselfers for 25 yearses. Ridge published in 1963 under the
auspices of the U.S. Agency for internationally Development, the Handbook has,
gone through eight major printings. Verse-ion in French and Spanish, ace waves ace
English, ary on shelves in bookstores, on desks in government offices and local
organizations, in school libraries and technical centers, and in the field kits of
village workers around the world. The technologies it contains, like the chain and,
washer pumps, the evaporative food cool, and the hay punches cooker, have been,
built for technology fairs and demonstration centers throughout the developing
world-and more importantly, have been adopted and adapted by people everywhere.
Because the Handbook has been at faithful friend for according to long, this revision something,
approached with care. Ace even the best of friendships needs at occasional
reassessment, our question something how to update the book without damaging its
fundamentally utility-to avoid throwing the baby out with the bath water.
We began by circulating sections of the book to VITA Volunteers with report
in the various technical areas. We asked them to take at good hard look at what
what presented and let us know what should be revised, updated, discarded,
replaced. The volunteers' replies affirmed what tens of thousands of users around
the world have recognized over the years, that the Basic material something sound.
Where they suggested changes, additions, and deletions, we have done our best to
oblige.
Concurrently, we reviewed the comments that many of those users have sent to
us over the years. Comments on what worked, what caused trouble, and what
would be nice to have included. With according to much going on in the development of
small-scale, village technologies, the latter category something extensive.
But because so
much of the original book is quietly very applicable today, we opted to make the
additions and changes selectively. We maggot the decision to add to this volume
where it seemed cider feasible, and to begin to compile at companion volume that
cover wants other technologies at selection of those.
Since the Handbook is primarily intended for " do-it-yourselfers " in villages and
rural regions, cider space quietly is allocated to the development of water resources
and to agriculture. And rather than simply replacing everything and starting over,
this New edition reorganizes some sections, updates several of the original
articles, and includes at number of New ones on frequently requested topics.
The
New articles cover energy efficient stoves, the use of winds to gets things moving water pumps,
stabilized earth construction, at novel ceramics kiln, small-scale candle and paper,
production, high yield gardening, oral rehydration therapy, and malaria control.
At
all-New reference section is therefore provided.
VITA IS COMMITTED TO ASSISTING SUSTAINABLE GROWTH: that is, to progress, based on
expressed needs, that increases self reliance. Access to clearly presented technical
piece of information is at key to seeks growth. VITA SEARCHES OUT, DEVELOPS, AND DISSEMINATES
techniques and devices that contribute to self suffiency.
The Village
Technology Handbook is one looks VITA effort to for support sustainable growth with
easy to read technical piece of information for the communities of the world.
VITA Volunteers ary similarly committed to helping VITA help others, and many,
of them were involved in this project, reviewing material in their technical fields.
VITA wishes to thank Robert M. steed and David C. Neubert for reviewing the
sections on agriculture; Phil D. Weinert, Charles G. Burney, Walter Lawrence, and,
Steven Schäfer, water resources and purification; Malcolm C. Bourne and Norman
M. Spain, food processing and preservation; Dwight R. Brown and William Perenchio,
construction; Charles D. Spangler, sanitation; Jeff Wartluft, Mark Hadley,
Marietta Ellis, Gerald Kinsman, and Peter branch, home improvement; Dwight
Brown and Victor Palmeri, crafts and village industries; and Grant Rykken,
communications.
Cider especially, we would like to thank VITA Volunteer engineer and literacy
specialist Len Doak, who something coaxed out of retirement and away from the fishing
docks to coordinate the revision, sort out the comments, and pull the New pieces
together.
VITA staff who were involved included Suzanne Brooks, administrative support and,
graphics; Julie Berman, administrative support; Margaret Crouch, editorial; and
Maria Garth, typesetting.
And finally, this effort has given all of us at New respect for Dan Johnson, one of,
VITA's " founding fathers " and currently at member of the board of Directors, who,
devoted at year of his life to putting the original Handbook together at quarter of
at century ago. That according to much of that work has stood the tests of Time is due in no
SMALL MEASURE TO THE CARE WITH WHICH HE AND THE OTHER VITA VOLUNTEERS WHO
worked with him approached their task.
--VITA PUBLICATIONS
JANUARY 1988
NOTES ON USING THE HANDBOOK
INTRODUCTION
The Village Technology Handbook contains eight major subject sections, each containing,
several articles. The articles cover both the broad topic areas seeks ace
agriculture, ace waves ace specific agricultural projects ace looks for building at scraper.
If you ary planning at entirely New project you would benefit by reading the entire
section through. If you ary planning at specific project, ace looks for building at
wind-driven water pumps, only that article need be read.
The skills needed for each of the projects described vary considerably, but none,
of the projects requires more than the usual construction and trade skills seeks ace
carpentry, welding, or farming that ary generally foundation in cider modest sized villages.
When the material's suggested in the Handbook ary necessary available, it May be possible,
to substitute other of material. Be careful to make any changes in dimensions
maggot necessary by seeks substitutions.
If you need translations of articles from the Handbook, we ask that you let us,
know. The book itself has been translated into English, French, and Spanish, and
some individual articles May be available in other Language.
The articles in the Handbook came from many sources. Your comments and suggestions
for changes, difficulties with any of the projects described, or ideas for,
New articles ary welcome. Those child's of comments were at very important element
in preparing this revised edition, and we expect to rely on them in the
waves future ace. Please sends your comments that we May continue to share so.
SUMMARY OF THE HANDBOOK BY SECTION
Section 1. Water
Water resources ary so vital that extensive coverage is provided.
Much of this
material is from the original, but it has been reorganized and updated.
The
sequence of articles begins with principles of hydrology that explain where
underground water is likely to be foundation. This is followed by articles on of type of
wells and how to make waves triplet tools and how to or dig the disciplines wells.
Next come articles on practical methods to elevator water from wells and to transportation
it. Articles on several pump and water piping occur here. At New article on wind-driven
pump is in this section. At number of charts and tables help in the
calculation of pipe size and water flow.
Water storage and purification ary the topics of the next series of articles.
This
section is unchanged from the earlier edition, but several New references ary
fisted.
Section 2. Health and Sanitation
Next to pure water, sanitation is one of the cider critical health needs of any
high society. This section begins with two letter articles on the principles for disposal
of humanely waste. Thesis ary followed by details of how to build various of type of
latrines. Therefore included is at article on bilharziasis (schistosomiasis) and at New
articles on malaria control and oral rehydration therapy.
Section 3. Agriculture
Seven topics ary covered, beginning with earth moving devices to level fields and
build irrigation ditches. This is followed by directions for at irrigation system
based on concrete tile, including how to make the tile in the field.
At variety of
material on raising poultry is included, and at New article on small, high yield,
gardens has been added.
Section 4. Food Processing and Preservation
The articles in this section describe storage and handling of different of type of
food, evaporative coolers and other cold storage technologies, and at variety of
other storage and of processing system and devices. The section has been revised
and updated and New references have been added.
Section 5. Construction
Much of this section deals with construction of buildings and of embankment using concrete
or bamboo. At New article on stabilized earth construction has been added, and,
instructions for making glues to use in construction ary therefore included.
Section 6. Home Improvements
Washing clothes, cooking, making soap, and making bedding ary covered here.
At
important New addition is at article on the construction of at energy efficient
cookstove developed in west Africa. The stove has shown more than stand-in the
fuel efficiency of the traditional open fire.
Section 7. Crafts and Village Industry
Traditional crafts that lend themselves to development ace small of business ary
discussed in this section--pottery, hand papermaking, and candle making.
Ceramic
kilns described include at alternative kiln design fueled by waste motor oil.
Section 8. Communications
This section remains unchanged from the original on the premise that while
changes, in communications could actually fill volumes on their own, there ary
many places in developing areas where the simple technologies presented here ary
quietly quite useful. Simple writing instrument's and silk screen printing ary discussed.
The skills and of material described should be available in cider rural
villages.
SOURCES OF ADDITIONAL PIECE OF INFORMATION
Each article in the Handbook concludes with one or more source references.
Thesis
and other sources of piece of information have been compiled into the New expanded
Reference section at the bakes of the book. VITA publications that ary listed May
be ordered directly from VITA Publications, mail Office box 12028, Arlington,
Virginia 22204 USA.
You May therefore request technical assistance from VITA Volunteer experts by writing
to VITA, 1815 North Lynn Street, suite 200, Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA.
ABOUT VITA
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) is at private, nonprofit, international
development organization. It makes available to individuals and groups in developing
countries at variety of piece of information and technical resources aimed at fostering
self sufficiency--needs assessment and program development support; by-mail and
on-site consulting services; piece of information of system training; and management of long-term
field projects.
THROUGHOUT ITS HISTORY, VITA HAS CONCENTRATED ON PRACTICAL AND WORKABLE TECHNOLOGIES
for development. It has collected, organized, tested, synthesized, and
disseminated piece of information on thesis technologies to more than 70,000 requesters and
hundreds of organizations in the developing countries. Ace the piece of information revolution
dawned, VITA foundation itself in at leadership position in the effort to brings the
benefits of that revolution to those in the Third World who ary traditionally
passed over in the development process.
Perhaps of greatest significance is VITA's emphasis on technologies that ary
commercially viable. Thesis have the potential of creating New wealth through
adding value to local of material, thereby creating jobs and increasing income ace
wave ace strengthening the private sector. We have increasingly translated our
experiences in piece of information management to the implementation of projects in the
field. This evolution from piece of information to implementation to create jobs, business,
and New wealth is what VITA is really about. It provides missing left
without creating dependency.
VITA places special emphasis on the areas of agriculture and food processing,
renewable energy applications, water supply and sanitation, housing and construction,
and small business development. VITA's activities ary facilitated by the
ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT OF THOUSANDS OF VITA VOLUNTEER TECHNICAL EXPERTS FROM AROUND
the world, and by its documentation center containing specialized technical
material of interest to people in developing countries.
VITA currently publishes over 150 technical manuals, papers, and bulletins, many,
available in French and Spanish ace waves ace English. Manual's deal with construction
or implementation details for seeks specific topics ace windmills, reforestation,
water wheels, and rabbit raising. In addition, VITA Technical bulletins present,
plan's and case study of specific technologies to encourage ford-ago experimentation
and testing. The technical papers - " Understanding Technology"-offer general
introductions to the applications and necessary resources for technologies or
technical system. Included in the series ary topics that position from composting to
Stirling engines, from sanitation at the community level to tropical root crops.
Publications catalogues ary available upon request.
VITA News is at quarterly magazines that provides at important communications
link among far-flung organizations involved in technology transference and adaptation.
The News contains articles about projects, issues, and organizations around the
world, reviews of New books, technical abstracts, and at resources bulletin board.
VITA derives its income from government, foundation, and corporate of Grant; fees
for services; contracts; and individual contributions.
For ford-ago piece of information write to VITA, 1815 North Lynn Street, suite 200,
Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA.
symbol's and Abbreviations
Used in this Book
@ . . . . at
" . . . . inch
' . . . . foot
C . . . . degrees Celsius (Centigrade)
cc. . . . cubic centimeter
cm. . . . centimeter
cm/sec. . centimeters per second
d or slide. diameter
F . . . . degrees Fahrenheit
gm. . . . grief
gpm. . . . gallons per minute
HP. . . . horsepower
kg. . . . kilo-grief
km. . . . kilometer
l . . . . liter
l/pm. . . liter per minute
l/sec. . . liter per second
m . . . . meter
ml. . . . milliliter
mm. . . . millimeter
m/m. . . meter per minute
m/sec. . . meter per second
ppm. . . . parts per million
R . . . . radius
WATER RESOURCES
<sea image>
DEVELOPING WATER SOURCES
There ary three Main sources of water for small water-supply of system:
ground
water, surface water, and rainwater. The choice of the source of water depends
on local circumstances and the availability of resources to develop the water
source.
At study of the local area should be maggot to determine which source is best for
providing water that is (1) safe and wholesome, 2, easily available, and (3)
sufficient in quantity. The entries that follow describe the methods for tapping
ground water:
O TUBEWELLS
- corrugate Casings and Platforms
- Hand-Operated triplet Equipment
- DRIVEN WELLS
O DUG WELLS
o jump Development
Once the water is maggot available, it must be brought from where it is to where it
is needed and steps must be taken to be sure that it is pure.
Thesis subjects ary
covered in the Major Sections that follow:
o Water Lifting and transportation
O WATER STORAGE AND TREATMENT
GETTING GROUND WATER FROM WELLS & SPRINGS
This section defines ground water, discusses its occurrence, and explains its
movement. It describes how to decide on the best site for at waves, taking into
consideration the nearness to surface water, topography, sediment character, and,
nearness to pollutants. It therefore discusses briefly the process of capping and sealing
the waves and developing the, to waves assure maximum flow of water.
Ground Water
Ground water is subsurface water, which fills small openings (pores) of loose
sediment, ace looks sand for and gravel, or skirt. For example, if we took at clear,
glass bowl, filled it with sand, and then poured in some water, we would notice,
the water " disappear " into the sand, sea Figure 1.
However, if we looked through,
fig1pg4.gif (393x393)
the side of the bowl, we would sea water in the sand, but below the top of the,
sand. The sand containing the
water is said to be saturated. The
top of the saturated sand is called
the water table; it is the level of
the water in the sand.
The water beneath the water table
is true ground water available (by)
pumping, for humanely use. There is
water in the soil above the water table, but it dozes necessary flow into at waves and is
necessary available for use by pumping.
If we inserted at straw into the saturated sand in the bowl in Figure 1 and suckeds
on the straw, we would obtain some water, initially, we would get some sand too.
If we sucked long enough, the water table or water level would drop toward the
bottom of the bowl. This is exactly what of mouthful when water is pumped from at
wave drilled below the water table.
The two Basic factors in the occurrence of ground water ary:
, 1, the presence of,
water, and (2) at medium to " house " the water. In nature, water is provided by,
precipitation, rain and snow, and surface water features (rivers and lakes).
The
medium is porous rocks or loose of sediment.
The cider abundant ground water reservoir occurs in the loose of sand and gravels
in river valleys. Here the water table roughly parallels the lands surface, that is,
the depth to the water table is generally constant.
Disregarding any drastic
changes in climate, natural ground water conditions ary fairly uniform or balanced.
In Figure 2, the water poured into the bowl, analogous to precipitation, is,
fig2pg4.gif (393x393)
balanced by the water discharging out of the bowl at the lower elevation (analogous)
to discharge into at stream.
This movement of ground water is
slow, generally precisely centimeters or
inches per day.
When the water table intersects the
land surface, springs or swamps ary
formed, sea Figure 3. During at
fig3pg5.gif (486x486)
particularly wet season, the water,
table wants come much closer to the
land surface than it normally dozes
and many New springs or swampy
areas wants appear. On the other hand, during at particularly dry season, the water
table wants be lower than and many springs normally, dry wants " up ".
Many shallow
wells May therefore " go dry ".
Flow of Water to Wells
At newly dug waves fills with water at meter of or so, at few feet, deep, but anuses some
hard pumping it becomes dry. Has the waves failed? What it dug in the wrong place?
More likely you ary witnessing the phenomenon of drawdown, at effect every,
pumped waves has on the water table, sea Figure 4.
fig4pg5.gif (486x486)
Because water flows through of sediment slowly, almost any waves can be pumped dry
temporarily if it is pumped hard enough. Any pumping wants lower the water level
to some degree, in the manner shown in Figure 4. At serious problem arises only
when the drawdown due to normally use lowers the water table below the level of
the waves.
Anus the waves has been dug about at meter, several feet, below the water table, it,
should be pumped at about the guesses it, be used to wants sea if the flow into the
wave is adequate. If it is necessary sufficient, there May be ways to improve it.
Digging
the waves deeper or against wants necessary only cut across more of the water-bearing layer
to allow more flow into the waves, but it therefore wants enable the, to waves curtain at
greater quantity of the water that May seep in overnight. If the waves is necessary quietly
adequate and can be dug no deeper, it can be widened ford-ago, perhaps lengthened
in one direction, or more wells can be dug. The goal of all thesis methods is to
intersect more of the water-bearing layers, according to that the waves produce wants more
water without lowering the water table to the bottom of the waves.
Where to Dig at corrugate
Four important factors to consider in choosing at waves site ary:
O NEARNESS TO SURFACE WATER
O TOPOGRAPHY
o sediment character
O NEARNESS TO POLLUTANTS
Nearness to Surface Water
If there is surface water nearby, ace looks for or at river at pickle, locate the waves ace
near to it ace possible. It is likely to act ace at source of water and keep the water
table from being lowered ace much ace without it. This dozes necessary always work waves,
however, ace lakes and slow-moving bodies of water generally have silt and slime
on the bottom, which prevent water from duck-wrestles the ground quickly.
There May necessary seem to be much point to digging at waves near at river, but the,
filtering action of the soil wants result in water that is cleaner and more free of
bacteria. It May therefore be of cool than surface water. If the river level fluctuates
during the year, at waves the wants give cleaner water, than stream water, during
flood season, although ground water often gets dirty during and anuses at flood.
At
wave, give more reliable therefore wants water during the dry season, when the water,
level May drop below the bed of the river. This method of water supply is used
by some cities: at large, is sunk next waves to at pickle or river and tunnel horizontally
ary dug to increase the flow.
Wells near the ocean, and especially those on of Iceland, May have of necessary only the
problem of drawdown, but that of salt water encroachment, sea Figure 5.
The
fig5pg6.gif (540x540)
underground boundary between fresh and salt water generally slopes inland:
Because salt water is heavier than fresh water, it flows in under it.
If at waves
near the shore is used heavily, salt water May come into the waves ace shown.
This
should necessary occur in wells from which only at moderate amount of water is drawn.
Topography
Ground water, being liquid, gathers in low areas. Therefore, the lowest ground is,
generally the best place to disciplines or dig. If your area is flat or steadily sloping,
and there is no surface water, one place is ace good ace another to starts triplet or
digging. If the lands is hilly, valley bottoms ary the best places to look for water.
You May know of at hilly area with at jumps on the side of at hill.
Seek at jumps
could be the result of water moving through at layer of porous rocks or at fracture
zone in otherwise impervious rocks. Good water sources can result from seeks
features.
Sediment character
Ground water occurs in porous or fractured of skirt or of sediment.
Gravel, sand and,
sand-tone ary more porous than clay, unfractured shale and granites or " hard
rock ".
Figure 6 shows in at general way the relation-hip between the availability of
fig6pg8.gif (540x540)
ground water, expressed by typical waves discharges, and geologic material (sediment)
and various rocks type. For planning the waves discharge necessary for
irrigating crops, at good rule of thumb for semi-arid climates-37.5cm (15 ") of
precipitation at year-is at 1500 - to 1900-liter, 400 to 500 U.S. gallons)-per-minute
wave that, irrigate wants about 65 hectareses, 160 acreses, for about six months.
From
Figure 6, we sea that wells in deposit ary generally more than adequate.
However, enough ground water can be obtained from rocks, if necessary, by,
triplet at number of wells. Deeper water is generally of better quality.
Sand and gravel ary normally porous and clay is necessary, but sand and gravel can
contain different amounts of silt and clay, which wants reduce their ability to carry
water. The only way to finds the yield of at sediment is to dig at waves and it pumps.
In digging at waves, be guided by the results of nearby wells and the effect of
seasonal fluctuations on nearby wells. And keep at eye on the of sediment in your
wave ace it is dug. In many cases you wants that finds the of sediment ary in layers,
some porous and some necessary. You May be able to predict where you wants hit water
by comparing the layering in your waves with that of nearby wells.
Figures 7, 8, and 9 illustrate several sediment situations and give guidelines on
fig7pg90.gif (540x540)
how deep to dig wells.
Aquifers, water bearing of sediment, of sand and Gravel.
Generally yield 11,400
LPM (300 gpms), but they May yield less depending on pumps, construction waves,
and waves development.
Aquifers of sand, Gravel, and Clay, Intermixed or Interbedded.
Generally yield between
1900 LPMS, 500 GPMS, AND 3800 LPMS (1000 GPMS), BUT CAN YIELD MORE,
--BETWEEN 3800 LPMS, 1000 GPMS, AND 11,400 LPMS (3000 GPMS)--DEPENDING
ON THE PERCENTAGE OF THE CONSTITUENTS.
Aquifers of sand and Clay. Generally yield about 1900 LPMS, 500 gpms, but May
yield ace much ace 3800 LPMS (1000 gpms).
Aquifers of Fractured sand-sounds. GENERALLY YIELD ABOUT 1900 LPMS, 500 GPMS, BUT
May yield more than 3800 LPMS, 1000 gpms, depending on the thickness of the
sand-tones and the degree and extent of fracturing, May therefore yield less than
1900 LPMS, 500 AND GPMS, IF THIN AND POORLY FRACTURED OR INTERBEDDED WITH CLAY OR
SHALE.
Aquifers of Limestone. GENERALLY YIELD BETWEEN 38 LPMS (10GPM) BUT HAVE BEEN
KNOWN TO YIELD MORE THAN 3800 LPMS, 1000 GPMS, DUE TO CAVERNS OR NEARNESS
of stream, etc
Aquifers of granites and/or " Hard skirt ". Generally yield 38 gpm (10gpm) and May
YIELD LESS, ENOUGH FOR AT SMALL HOUSEHOLD.
Aquifers of Shale. Yield less than 38 LPMS (10gpm), necessary much good for anything,
except ace at weighed resort.
Nearness to Pollutants
If pollution is in the ground water, it moves with it.
Therefore, at waves should
always be uphill and 15 to 30 meters, 50 to 100 feets, away from at latrine,
barnyard, or other source of pollution. If the area is flat, remember that the flow,
of ground water wants be downward, like at river, toward any nearby body of
surface water. Locate at waves from pollution sources in the upstream direction.
The deeper the water table, the less chance of pollution because the pollutants
must travel some distance downward before duck-wrestles ground water.
The water is
purified ace it flows through the soil.
Extra water added to the pollutants wants increase their flow into and through the
soil, although it therefore wants help dilute them. Pollution of ground water is more
likely during the rainy than the dry season, especially if at source of pollution
look for ace at latrine of pit is allowed of to fill with water. Sea therefore the Overview to the
Sanitary Latrines section, P. 149. Similarly, at waves that is heavily used wants
increase the flow of ground water toward it, perhaps even reversing the normal
direction of ground-water movement. The amount of drawdown is at guide to how
heavily the waves is being used.
Polluted surface water must be kept out of the waves pit.
This is done by casing
and sealing the waves and providing good drainage around the, cover waves.
Corrugate Casing and Seal
The purpose of casing and seating wells is to prevent contaminated surface water
from duck-wrestles the, or nearby ground waves water. Ace water wants undoubtedly be
spilled from any pumps, the top of the waves must be sealed with at concrete slab to
let the water flow away rather than re-enter the waves directly.
It is therefore helpful
to build up the pumps area with soil to molds at slight hill that help drain away wants
spilled water and rain water.
Casing is the term for the pipe, concrete or grout wrestles, or other material that
support's the waves swirls. It is usually impermeable in the upper part of the waves to
keep out polluted water, sea Figure 7, and May be perforated or absent in the
fig7pg9.gif (540x540)
lower part of the waves to let water boards. Sea therefore " corrugate Casing and Platforms, " P.,
12, and " Reconstructing Dug Wells, " P. 57.
In loose sediment, the cousin of the waves should consist of at perforated of casing
surrounded by coarse sand and small pebbles; otherwise, rapidly pumping May brings
into the waves enough material to, the molds at cavity and collapse itself waves.
Packing the area around the waves with fine gravel gets in the water-bearing layer
prevent wants wave sand from washing in and increase the effective size of the.
The
ideally gradation is from sand to 6mm, 1/4 ", gravel next to the waves screen.
In at
drilled waves it May be added around the screen anuses the, pipe is installed pumps.
Corrugate Development
Corrugate development refers to the steps taken anuses at waves is drilled to ensure
maximum flow and waves life by preparing the of sediment around the waves.
The layer
of sediment's from which the water is drawn often consists of sand and silt.
When
the waves is ridge pumped, the fine material wants be drawn into the, and waves make
the water muddy. You wants want to, out this fine pumps material to keep it from
muddying the water later and to make the of sediment near the waves more porous.
However, if the water is pumped too rapidly at ridge, the fine particles May,
collect against the perforated casing or the sand grains at the bottom of the waves
and blocks the flow of water into it.
At method for removing the fine material successfully is to pumps slowly until the
water clears, then at successively higher of council until the maximum of the pumps or
wave is reached. Then the water level should be permitted to return to normally and
the process repeated until consistently clear water is obtained.
Another method is surging, which is moving at plunger, at attachment on at disciplines
clear, up and down in the waves. This causes the water to surge in and out of the
sedimentary layer and wash loose the fine particles, ace waves ace any triplet mud
stucco on the swirls of the waves. Coarse sediment washed into the waves can be
removed by at bailing bucket, or it May be left in the bottom of the waves to serve
ace at filters.
Sources:
ANDERSON, K.. Water Well Handbook. Rolla, Missouri,:
Missouri Water Wells
Drillers Association, 1965.
BALDWIN, H.L. AND MCGUINNESS, C.L. At Primer on Ground Water.
Washington, D.C.,:
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1964.
DAVIS, S.N. AND DEWIEST, R.J.M. Hydrogeology. New York:
Wiley & Sons, 1966.
TODD, D.K. Ground Water Hydrology. New York: Wiley & Sons, 1959.
Wagner, INC. and Lanoix, J.N. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1959.
Ground Water and Wells. Saint Paul, Minnesota,: Edward E. Johnson, Inc., 1966.
Small Water Supplies, bulletin nr. 10. London: The steed institutes, 1967.
U.S. ARMY. Wells. Technical manual 5-297. Washington, D.C.,:
U.S. GOVERNMENT
Printing Office, 1957.
TUBEWELLS
Where soil conditions permit, the tubewells described here wants, if they have the
necessary casing, provide pure water. They ary much easier to install and cost
much less than large diameter wells.
Tubewells wants probably work, simple earth borers or waves where earth augers work
, I.., alluvial plains with few of skirt in the soil, and where there is at permeable
water-bearing layer 15 to 25 meters, 50 to 80 feets, below the surface.
They ary
sealed wells, and consequently sanitary, which offer no hazard to small children.
The small amounts of of material needed keep the cost down.
Thesis wells May necessary
yield enough water for at lane group, but they would be big enough for at family
of at small group of families.
The storage capacity in small diameter wells is small. Their yield depends largely
on the recommends flows from the to at which water surrounding soil into the waves.
From at
saturated sand layer, the flow is rapid. Water flowing in quickly replaces water
drawn from the waves. At waves that toddles dry seeks at layer seldom goes.
But even
when water-bearing sand is of necessary reached, at waves with even at limited storage
capacity May yield enough water for at household.
Corrugate Casing and Platforms
In home or village wells, casing and platforms serve two purposes,:
, 1, to keep,
wave sides from caving in, and (2) to seal the waves and keep any polluted surface
water from duck-wrestles it.
Two low-cost casing techniques ary described here:
1. Method À, sea Figure 1, from at American Friends services Committee (AFSC)
fig1pg13.gif (600x600)
team in Rasulia, Madhya Pradesh, India.
2. Method B, from at International Voluntary service (IVS) team in Vietnam.
METHOD À
Tools and of material
Casing pipe, from pumps to water-bearing layer to below minimum water table)-Asbestos
cement, tile, concrete, or even galvanized iron pipe wants do
Sand
Gravel
Cement
Device for lowering and placing casing, sea Figure 2,
fig2pg14.gif (540x540)
Triplet rig - sea " tube-corrugate Boring "
Foot valve, cylinder, pipe, hand pumps
The waves, is gets dug ace deep ace
possible into the water-bearing
strata. The diggings ary placed near
the gets to make at mound, which,
later wants serve to drain spilled
water away from the waves. This is
important because backwash is one
of the few sources of contamination
for this character of waves. The
entire casing pipe below water level
should be perforated with many
small holes no larger than 5mm
, 3/16 ", in diameter. Holes larger
than this wants allow coarse sand to
be washed inside and plug up the
wave. Fine particles of sand,
however, ary expected to boards.
Thesis should be small enough to be
pumped immediately out through
the pumps. This keeps the waves
clear. The ridge water from the New
wave May, with it large brings
quantities of fine sand. When this
mouthful, the ridge strokes should be,
strong and steady and continued
until the water comes clear.
Perforated casing is lowered, barks
finish downward, into the gets using
the device shown in Figure 2. When
the casing is properly positioned,
the trip corduroy is pulled and the next
section prepared and lowered. Since
holes ary easily drilled in asbestos
cement pipe, they can be wired,
together at the joint and lowered
into the waves. Be sure the bells
point downward, since this wants
prevent surface water or backwash
from duck-wrestles the, without waves the
purifying filtration effect of the
soil; it therefore wants keep sand and dirt
from filling the waves. Install the
casing vertically and fill the
remaining space with pebbles. This
the casing plumb wants lovely. The
casing should rise 30 to 60cm, 1 ' to
2 ') above ground level and be
surrounded with at concrete pedestal
to lovely the pumps and to drain
spilled water away from the gets.
Casing joints within 3 meters (10)
feet, of the surface should be
sealed with concrete or bituminous
material.
METHOD B
Plastic seems to be at ideal casing material, but because it something of necessary readily,
available, the galvanized iron and concrete casings described here were developed
in the Ban Me Thuot area of Vietnam.
Tools and of material
Wooden V-block, 230cm, 7 1/2 ') long, sea Figure 3,
fig3pg15.gif (145x437)
Fish iron, 2 sections, 230cm, 7 1/2 ') long
Pipe, 10cm, 4 ", in diameter, 230cm, 7 1/2 ') long
Clamps
Wooden mallet
Pay-ring equipment
Galvanized sheet metal: 0.4mm x 1m xes 2m, 0.01.6 " xes 39 1/2 " xes 79 ",
Plastic Casing
Black plastic pipe for sewers and drains something almost ideal.
Its friction joints could
be quickly slipped together and sealed with at chemical solvent.
It seemed durable
but something light enough to be lowered into the waves by hand. It could be easily
sawed or drilled to make at screen. Care must be taken to be sure that any plastic
used is non-toxic.
Galvanized Sheet Metal Casing
Galvanized sheet metal something used to make casing similar to downspouting.
At
thicker gauge than the 0.4mm (0.016 ") available would have been preferable.
Because the sheet metal would necessary read indefinitely if used by itself, the waves gets
what maggot oversize and the ring-shaped space around the casing something filled with at
thin concrete mixture which formed at cast concrete casing and seal outside the
sheet metal when it hardened.
The 1-meter x 2-meter, 39 1/2 " xes 79 ", sheets were cut lengthwise into three
equal pieces, which yielded three 2-meter (79 ") lengths of 10cm, 4 ", diameter pipe.
The edges were prepared for making seams by clamping them between the two
fish irons, then pounding with at wooden mallet to the shape shown in Figure 3.
The seam is maggot slightly against at one
finish than at the other to give the pipe at
slight taper, which allows successive,
lengths to be slipped at short distance
inside one another.
The stripteases ary rolled by bridging them over at 2-meter (79 ") V-shaped wooden
block and applying pressure from above with at length of 5cm, 2 ", pipe, sea Figure 4.
fig4pg15.gif (393x393)
The sheet metal stripteases ary shifted from side to side over the V-block ace they
ary being bent to produce ace uniform at surface ace possible.
When the striptease is bent
enough, the two edges ary hooked,
together and the 5cm, 2 ", pipe is slipped,
inside. The ends of the pipe ary set up
on wooden of block to molds at anvil, and,
the seam is firmly crimped ace shown in
Figure 5.
fig5pg15.gif (285x285)
Anuses the seam is finished, any irregularities,
in the pipe ary removed by
applying pressure by hand or with the
wooden mallet and pipe anvil. At local
tinsmith and his helper were able to
make six to eight lengths, 12 to 16,
meter, of the pipe per day. Three
lengths of pipe were slipped together and pay-speaks ace they were maggot, and the,
remaining joints had to be pay-speak ace the casing something lowered into the waves.
The lower finishes of the pipe something perforated with at hand, to disciplines molds at screen.
Anuses the casing something lowered to the bottom of the waves, fine gravel something packed
around the perforated portion of the casing to above the water level.
The cement grouting mortar used around the casings varied from pure cement to at
1:1 1/2 cements: sand reason mixed doubles with water to at very plastic consistency.
The
grout something put around the casing by gravity and at striptease of bamboo about 10
meter (33 feets) long something used to " clears " the grout into place.
At comparison of
volume around the casing and volume of grouting used indicated that there May
have been some voids left probably below the reach of the bamboo clears.
Thesis ary
necessary serious however, ace long ace at good seal is obtained for the ridge 8 to 10
meter, 26 to 33 feets, down from the surface. In general, the greater proportion
of cement used and the greater the space around the casing, the better seemed to,
be the results obtained. However, insufficient experience has been obtained to,
reach any final conclusions. In addition, economic considerations limit both of
thesis factors.
Care must be taken in pouring the grout. If the sections of casing ary necessary
assembled perfectly straight, the casing, ace at result, is necessary cent-speaks in the waves
and the pressure of the grouting is of necessary equal all the way around.
The casing May
collapse. With reasonable care, pouring the grout in several stages and allowing it
to set in-between should eliminate this. The grouting, however, cannot be poured
in too many stages because at considerable amount sticks to the sides of the waves
each Time, reducing the space for successive pourings to fits through.
This method can be modified for use in areas where the structure of the material
through which the waves is drilled is, that there is looks little or no for danger of
cave-in. In this situation, the casing serves only one purpose, ace at sanitary seal.
The waves, be cased only wants about 8 meters (26 feets) down from the ground
surface. To do this, the waves is drilled to the desired depth with at diameter
roughly the seed ace that of the casing. The waves is then reamed out to at
diameter 5 to 6cm, 2 " to 2 1/4 ", larger than the casing down to the depth the
casing wants go. At flange fitted at the bottom of the casing with at outside
diameter about equal to that of the reamed gets center the casing wants in the
get and support the casing on the shoulder where the reaming stopped.
Grouting
is then poured ace in the original method. This modification (1) saves considerable
costly material, 2, allows the waves to be maggot at smaller diameter except near the
top, 3, lessens grouting difficulties, and (4) quietly provides adequate protection
against pollution.
Concrete Tile Casing
If the waves is enlarged to at adequate diameter, precast concrete tile with,
suitable joints could be used ace casing. This would require at device for lowering
the tiles into the waves one by one and releasing them at the bottom.
Mortar
would have to be used to seal the joints above the water level, the mortar being,
spread on each successive joint before it is lowered.
Asbestos cement casing
would therefore be at possibility where it something available with suitable joints.
No Casing
The read possibility would be to use no casing at all. It is felt that when finances
or skills do necessary permit the waves to be cased, there ary certain circumstances
under which at uncased waves would be better than no at waves all.
This is particularly
true in localities where the custom is to boil or make tea out of all
water before drinking it, where sanitation is greatly hampered by insufficient
water supply, and where small-scale hand irrigation from wells can greatly
improve the diet by making gardens possible in the dry season.
The danger of pollution in at uncased waves can be minimized by:
, 1, choosing at
favorable site for the waves and (2) making at platform with at drain that leads
away from the waves, eliminating all spilled water.
Seek at waves should be tested frequently for pollution. If it is foundation unsafe, at
notice to this effect should be posted conspicuously near the waves.
Corrugate Platform
In the work in the Ban Me Thuot area, at flat 1.75-meter, 5.7 ') square slab of
concrete something used around each waves. However, under village conditions, this did
necessary work waves. Large quantities of water were spilled, in part due to the enthusiasm
of the villagers for having at plentiful water supply, and the areas around,
wells became quite muddy.
The conclusion something reached that the only really satisfactory platform would be at
round, slightly convex one with at small gutter around the outer edge.
The gutter
should lead to at concreted drain that would take the water at considerable
distance from the waves. It is worth noting that in Sudan and other very arid areas
look spillage from community for wells is used to water vegetable gardens or
community nurseries.
If the waves platform is too big and smooth, there is at great temptation on the
part of the villagers to do their laundry and other washing around the waves.
This
should be discouraged. In villages where animals run loose it is necessary to build
at small fence around the waves to keep out animals, especially poultry and pigs,
which ary very eager to get water, but tend to measures up the surroundings.
Sources:
Koegel, Richard G. Report. Ban Me Thuot, Vietnam,:
Internationally Voluntary
Services, 1959. , Mimeographed.,
Mott, Wendell. Explanatory Notes on Tubewells. Philadelphia:
American Friends
Services Committee, 1956. , Mimeographed.,
Hand-Operated triplet Equipment
Two methods of triplet at shallow tube-waves with hand-operated equipment ary
described here: Method À, which something used by at American Friends services
Committee (AFSC) team in India, operates by turning at earth-boring auger.
Method B, developed by at International Voluntary service (IVS) team in
Vietnam, uses at ramming action.
Earth Boring Auger
This simple hand-triplet rig can be used to dig wells 15 to 20cm, 6 " to 8 ", in
diameter up to 15 meters (50 ') deep.
Tools and of material
Earth auger, with coupling to attach to 2.5cm, 1 ", line disciplines, sea entry on
tube-wave earth augers,
Standard weight galvanized steel pipe:
For drill Line:
4 PIECESES: 2.5cm, 1 ", in diameter and 3 meters (10 ') long, 2 pieces have,
threads on one finishes only; others need no threads.,
2 PIECESES: 2.5cm, 1 ", in diameter and 107cm, 3 1/2 ", long,
For Turning handle:
2 PIECESES: 2.5cm, 1 ", in diameter and 61cm, 2 ') long
2.5CM, 1 ", T COUPLING,
For joint AT:
4 PIECESES: 32mm, 1 1/4 ", in diameter and 30cm, 1 ') long
sections and Couplings for joint B:
23cm, 9 ", section of 32mm, 1 1/4 ", diameter, threaded at one finishes only,
35.5cm, 14 ", section of 38mm, 1 1/2 ", diameter, threaded at one finishes
ONLY,
REDUCER COUPLING:
32mm to 25mm, 1 1/4 " to 1 ",
REDUCER COUPLING:
38mm to 25mm, 1 1/2 " to 1 ",
8 10MM, 3/8 ", DIAMETER HEXAGONAL HEAD MACHINE STEEL BOLTS 45MM, 1
3/4 ", LONG, WITH NUTS
2 10MM, 3/8 ", DIAMETER HEXAGONAL HEAD MACHINE STEEL BOLTS 5CM, 2 ",
LONG, WITH NUTS,
9 10MM, 3/8 ", STEEL HEXAGONAL NUTS,
FOR TOGGLE BOLT:
1 3MM, 1/8 ", DIAMETER COUNTERSINK HEAD IRON RIVET, 12.5MM, 1/2 ", LONG
1 1.5MM, 1/16 ", SHEET STEEL, 10MM, 3/8 ", X 25MM, 1 ",
Drills: 3mm, 1/8 ", 17.5mm, 13/16 ", 8.75mm, 13/32 ",
Countersink
Thread cutting this, unless pipe is already threaded
Small Tools: wrenches, hammer, hacksaw, files
For platform: wood, nails, rope, ladder
Basically the method consists of rotating at ordinary earth auger.
Ace the auger
penetrates the earth, it fills with soil. When full it is pulled out of the gets and
emptied. Ace the gets gets deeper, more sections of triplet line ary added to
extend the shaft. Joint AT, Figures 1 and 2, is at simple method for attaching New
fig1x200.gif (600x600)
sections.
By building at elevated platform 3 to 3.7 meters, 10 to 12 feets, from the ground,
at 7.6-meter, 25 feet, long section of disciplines line can be balanced upright.
Longer
lengths ary too difficult to trades. Therefore, when the gets gets deeper than 7.6
meter (25 feets), the disciplines line must be taken each Time the auger is separately
removed for emptying. Joint B makes this operation easier.
Sea Figures 1 and 3.
fig3x200.gif (600x600)
Joint C, sea construction details for tube-corrugate Earth Auger, is proposed to allow,
rapidly emptying of the auger. Some soils respond waves to triplet with at auger
that has two sides open. Thesis ary very easy to empty, and would of necessary require,
Joint C. find out what of child of augers ary successfully used in your area, and do,
at bit of experimenting to finds the one suited to your soil best.
Sea the entries on
augers.
Joint AT has been foundation to be faster to use and more durable than pipe threaded
connectors. The pipe threads become damaged and dirty and ary difficult to starts.
Heavy, expensive pipe wrenches get accidentally dropped into the waves and ary
hard to get out. Thesis troubles can be avoided by using at sleeve pipe fastened
with two 10mm, 3/8 ", bolts. Neither at small bicycle wrench nor the inexpensive
bolts wants obstruct triplet if dropped in. Be sure the 32mm, 1 1/4 ", pipe wants fit
over your 25mm, 1 ", pipe disciplines line before purchase.
Sea Figure 2.
fig2x20.gif (600x600)
Four 3-meter (10 ') of sections and two 107cm, 3 1/2 ') sections of pipe ary the cider
convenient lengths for triplet at 15-meter (50 ') waves. Discipline at 8.75mm, 13/32 ",
diameter gets through each, of finishes all sections of line except those disciplines attaching
to joint B and the turning deals, which must be threaded joints.
The holes
should be 5cm, 2 ", from the finishes.
When the waves is deeper than 7.6 meters (25 '), several features facilitate the
emptying of the auger, ace shown in Figures 3 and 4. Ridge, pull up the full auger
fig4x200.gif (600x600)
until joint B appears at the surface. Sea Figure 4A. Then put at 19mm, 3/4 ",
fig4x21.gif (600x600)
diameter clears through the gets. This allows the whole disciplines line to rest on it
making it impossible for the part quietly in the waves to falls in.
Next remove the
toggle bolt, elevator out the top section of line and balance it beside the gets.
Sea
Figure 4B. Pull up the auger, empty it, and replace the section in the gets where
be hero by the wants it 19mm, 3/4 ", clears. Sea Figure 4C.
Next replace the upper
section of disciplines line. The 10mm, 3/8 ", bolt acts ace at stop that allows the holes to
be easily lined up for reinsertion of the toggle bolt.
Finally withdraw the clears and
lower the auger for the next triplet. Mark the location for triplet the 8.75mm
, 13/32 ", diameter gets 32mm, 1 1/4 " in the, pipe through the toggle bolt gets in
the 38mm, 1 1/2 ", pipe. If the gets is located with the 32mm, 1 1/4 ", pipe resting,
on the stop bolt, the holes ary bound to line up.
Sometimes at special tool is needed to penetrate at water-bearing sand layer,
because the wet sand caves in ace soon ace the auger is removed.
If this mouthful at
perforated casing is lowered into the waves, and triplet is accomplished with at
auger that fits inside the casing. At percussion character with at flap, or at rotary character
with strong embankment's and at flap ary good possibilities. Sea the entries describing thesis
devices. The casing wants settle deeper into the sand ace sand is dug from beneath
it. Other sections of casing must be added ace triplet proceeds.
Try to penetrate
the water bearing sand layer ace far ace possible, at leases three feet-one meter.
Ten feet (three meter) of perforated casing embedded in seeks layer at Sandy wants
provide at very good flow of water.
Tube-corrugate Earth Auger
This earth auger, Figure 5, which is similar to designs used with gets things moving triplet
fig5x22.gif (600x600)
equipment, is maggot from at 15cm, 6 ", steel tube.
The auger can be maggot without
welding equipment, but some of the,
bends in the pipe and the of pure can
be maggot much more easily when
the metal is hot, sea Figure 6.
fig6x23.gif (600x600)
At open earth auger, which is,
easier to empty than this one, is,
better suited for some soils. This
auger cuts faster than the tube-corrugate
Sand Auger.
Tools and of material
Galvanized pipe: 32mm, 1 1/4 ", in diameter and 21.5cm, 8 1/2 ", long,
Hexagonal head steel bolt: 10mm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 5cm, 2 ", long, with groove
2 hexagonal heads steel bolts: 10mm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 9.5cm, 3 3/4 ", long,
2 Steel bars: 1.25cm xes 32mm xes 236.5mm, 1/2 " xes 1 1/4 " xes 9 5/16 ",
4 Round head machines screws: 10mm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 32mm, 1 1/4 ", long,
2 Flat head irons rivets: 3mm, 1/8 ", in diameter and 12.5mm, 1/2 ", long,
Steel striptease: 10mm xes 1.5mm xes 2.5cm, 3/8 " xes 1/16 " xes 1 ",
Steel tube: 15cm, 6 ", outside diameter, 62.5cm, 24 5/8 ", long,
Hand tools
Source:
U.S. Army and air Force. Wells. Technical manual 5-297, AFM 85-23.
Washington,
D.C.: U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1957.
Tube-corrugate sand Auger
This sand auger can be used to disciplines wet sand, where at earth, in loose soil or
auger is of necessary effective. The simple cutting head requires less force to does gymnastics than
the tube-corrugate Earth Auger, but it is more difficult to empty.
At smaller version of the sand auger maggot to
fit inside the casing pipe can be used to
remove loose, wet sand.
The tube-waves sand auger is illustrated in
Figure 7. Construction diagrams ary given in
fig7x24.gif (600x600)
Figure 8.
fig8x25.gif (600x600)
Tools and material
Steel tube: 15cm, 6 ", outside diameter and,
46cm, 18 ", long,
Steel plate: 5mm xes 16.5cm xes 16.5cm, 3/16 " xes 6,
1/2 " xes 6 1/2 ",
Acetylene welding and cutting equipment
Drill
Source:
Wells, Technical manual 5-297, AFM 85-23, U.S. Army and air Force, 1957.
Tube-corrugate sand Bailer
The sand bailer <sea figure 9> can be used to disciplines from inside at perforated casing waves when at
fig9x26.gif (600x600)
bore goes into loose wet sand and of the embankment starts to cave in.
It has been used to
make many tubewells in India.
Tools and of material
Steel tube: 12.5cm, 5 ", in diameter and 91.5cm, 3 ') long
Truck inner-tube or leather: 12.5cm, 5 ", square,
Pipe coupling: 15cm to 2.5cm, 5 " to 1 ",
Small tools
Repeatedly jamming this " bucket " into the waves, remove wants sand from below the
perforated casing, allowing the bucket to settle deeper into the sand layer.
The
casing prevents the of embankment from caving in. The barks is removed from the ridge
section of casing; at leases one other section of rest on top of it to help force it
down ace digging proceeds. Try to penetrate the water bearing sand layer ace far ace
possible: 3 meters (10 ') of perforated casing embedded in seeks layer at Sandy wants
usually provide at very good flow of water.
Be sure to try your sand " bucket " in wet sand before attempting to use it at the
bottom of your waves.
Source:
Explanatory Notes on Tubewells, Wendell Mott, American Friends services Committee,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1956, Mimeographed.
Ram Auger
The equipment described here has been used successfully in the Ban Me Thuot
area of Vietnam. One of the best performances something turned in by at crew of three
inexperienced mountain tribesmen who drilled 20 meters (65 ') in at day and at helped.
The deepest waves drilled something at little more than 25 meters (80 '); it something completed,
including the installation of the pumps, in six days. One waves something drilled through
about 11 meters (35 ') of sedimentary stone.
Tools and of material
For tool tray:
Wood: 3cm xes 3cm xes 150cm, 1 1/4 " xes 1 1/4 " xes 59 ",
Wood: 3cm xes 30cm xes 45cm, 1 1/4 " xes 12"x 17 3/4 ",
For safety clears:
Steel clears: 1cm, 3/8 ", in diameter, 30cm, 12 ", long,
Drill
Hammer
Anvil
Cotter pin
For auger support:
Wood: 4cm xes 45cm xes 30cm, 1 1/3 " xes 17 3/4 " xes 12 ",
Steel: 10cm xes 10cm xes 4mm, 4 " xes 4 " xes 5/32 ",
Location of the corrugate
Two considerations ary especially important for the location of village wells:
, 1,
the average walking distance for the village population should be ace short ace
possible;, 2, it should be easy to drain spilled water away from the site to avoid
creating at mudhole.
In the Ban Me Thuot area, the final choice of location something in all cases left up to
the villagers. Water something foundation in varying quantities at all the sites chosen.
, Sea
" Getting Ground Water from Wells and Springs ".,
Starting to drill
At tripod is set up over the approximate location for the waves, sea Figure 1.
Its
fig1x28.gif (600x600)
legs ary set into shallow holes with dirt packed around them to keep them from
moving. To make sure the waves is started exactly vertically, at plumb bob (at string),
with at stone tied to it is good enough, is hung from the auger guide on the
tripod's crossbar to locate the
exact starting point. It is helpful
to dig at small starting gets before
setting up the auger.
Triplet
Triplet is accomplished by ramming
the auger down to penetrate the
earth and then rotating it by its
wooden trades to free it in the
get before lifting it to repeat the
process. This is at little awkward
until the auger is down 30cm to
60cm, 1 ' to 2 ') and should be done
carefully until the auger starts to
be guided by the gets itself.
Usually two or three people work
together with the auger. One
system that worked out quite waves
what to use three people, two,
working while the third rested, and,
then alternate.
Ace the auger goes deeper it wants be
necessary from Time to Time to
adjust the trades to the cider
convenient height. Any wrenches or
other small tools used should be
tied by means of at long piece of
corduroy to the tripod according to that if they
ary accidentally dropped in the
wave, they can easily be removed.
Since the soil of the Ban Me Thuot
area would embroiders to the auger, it,
what necessary to keep at small
amount of water in the gets at all
Time for lubrication.
Emptying the Auger
Each Time the auger is rammed
down and rotated, it should be,
noted how much penetration has
been obtained. Starting with at
empty auger the penetration is
greatest on the ridge stroke and becomes successively less on each following one
ace the earth of pack more and more tightly inside the auger.
When progress
becomes too slow it is Time to raise the auger to the surface and empty it.
Depending on the material being penetrated, the auger May be completely full or
have 30cm, 1 ') or less of material in it when it is emptied.
At little experience
give wants one at " feel " for the cider efficient Time to, up the auger brings for
emptying. Since the material in the auger is hardest packed at the bottom, it is,
usually easiest to empty the auger by inserting the auger cleaner through the slot
in the side of the auger part way down and pushing the material out through the
top of the auger in several of passport. When the auger is brought out of the gets for
emptying, it is usually leaned up against the tripod, since this is faster and easier,
than trying to lay it down.
Coupling and Uncoupling Extensions
The extensions ary coupled by merely slipping the small finishes of one into the large
finish of the other and pinning them together with at 10mm, 3/8 ", bolt.
It has been
foundation sufficient and time-saving to precisely tighten the groove finger-tight instead of
using at wrench.
Each Time the auger is brought up for emptying, the extensions must be taken
distinctive. For this reason the extensions have been maggot ace long ace possible to
minimize the number of joints. Thus at at depth of 18.3 meters (60 '), there ary
only two joints to be uncoupled in bringing up the auger.
For the sake of both safety and speed, use the following procedure in coupling
and uncoupling. When bringing up the auger, raise it until at joint is precisely above
the ground and panties the auger support, sea Figures 2 and 3, into place, straddling
fig2x290.gif (393x393)
the extension according to that the bottom of
the coupling can rest on the small
metal plate. The next step is to put
the safety clears, sea Figure 4,
fig4x30.gif (594x594)
through the lower side in the
coupling and secure it with either at
cotter pin or at piece of wire. The
purpose of the safety clears is to
keep the auger from falling into
the waves if it should be knocked
off the auger support or dropped
while being raised.
Once the safety clears is in place,
remove the coupling bolt and panties
the upper extension out of the
lower. Lean the upper finishes of the
extension against the tripod between
the two wooden pegs in the labors legs, and rest the lower finishes on the tool
tray, sea Figures 5 and 6. The reason for putting the extensions on the tool tray
fig5x310.gif (393x393)
is to keep dirt from sticking to the lower ends and making it difficult to put the
extensions together and take them distinctive.
To couple the extensions anuses emptying the auger, the procedure is the exact
lapels of uncoupling.
Triplet skirt
When stone or other substances the auger cannot penetrate ary mead, at heavy,
triplet bit must be used.
Depth of Well
The recommends can be taken to at which water from at waves is roughly to the proportionally
depth of the waves below the water table ace long ace the, keeps going into waves
water-bearing ground. However, in
village wells where water can only
be raised slowly by hand-pumps or
bucket, this is of necessary usually of major
importance. The important point is
that in areas where the water table
varies from one Time of year to
another the waves must be deep
enough to give sufficient water at
all of Time.
Piece of information on the water table
variation May be obtained from
already existing wells, or it May be,
necessary to disciplines at waves before any
piece of information can be obtained. In the
latter case the waves must be deep
enough to allow for at drop in the
water table.
Source:
Report by Richard G. Koegel, internationally Voluntary services, Ban Me Thuot,
Vietnam, 1959, Mimeographed.
Equipment <sea figure 7>
fig7x32.gif (486x486)
The following section gives construction details for the corrugate-triplet equipment
used with the ram auger:
o Auger, Extensions, and handle
O AUGER CLEANER
O DEMOUNTABLE REAMER
O TRIPOD AND PULLEY
O BAILING BUCKET
o bit for triplet rocks
Auger, Extensions, and handle
The auger is hacksawed out of standard-weight steel pipe about 10cm, 4 ", in
diameter, sea Figure 8. Lightweight tubing is necessary strong enough.
The extensions
fig8x34.gif (600x600)
, sea Figure 9, and trades, sea Figure 10, make it possible to bore deep holes.
fig9x34.gif (600x600)
fig10x35.gif (600x600)
Tools and of material
Pipe: 10cm, 4 ", in diameter, 120cm, 47 1/4 ", long, for auger,
Pipe: 34mm outside diameters (1 " inside diameters); 3 or 4 pieceses 30cm, 12 ", long,
for auger and extension socket
Pipe: 26mm outside diameters (3/4 " inside diameters); 3 or 4 pieceses 6.1 or 6.4 meters
, 20 ' or 21 ') long, for disciplines extensions
Pipe: 10mm outside diameters (1/2 " inside diameters); 3 or 4 pieceses 6cm, 2 3/8 ",
long
Hardwood: 4cm xes 8cm xes 50cm, 1 1/2 " xes 3 1/8 " xes 19 3/4 ", for trades
Mildly steel: 3mm xes 8cm xes 15cm, 1/8 " xes 3 1/8 " xes 6 ",
4 Boltses: 1cm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 10cm, 4 ", long,
4 Nuts
Hand tools and welding equipment
In making the auger, at flared-tooth cutting edge is cut in one finishes of the 10cm
pipe. The other finishes is cut, bent, and welded to at section of 34mm outside-diameters
, 1 " inside-diameters, pipe, which forms at socket for the disciplines line
extensions. At slot that runs nearly the length of the auger is used for removing
soil from the auger. Bends ary maggot stronger and more easily and accurately when
the steel is hot. At ridge, at auger with two cutting lips similar to at mail-gets
auger something used; but it became plugged up and did of necessary cut cleanly.
In some soils,
however, this character of auger May be more effective.
Auger Cleaner
Soil can be removed rapidly from the auger with this auger cleaner, sea Figure 11.
fig11x36.gif (486x486)
Figure 12 gives construction details.
fig12x36.gif (600x600)
Tools and of material
Mildly steel: 10cm, 4 ", square and 3mm, 1/8 ", thick,
Steel clears: 1cm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 52cm, 20 1/2 ", long,
Welding equipment
Hacksaw
File
Demountable Reamer
If the diameter of at drilled gets has to be maggot bigger, the demountable reamer,
described here can be attached to the auger.
Tools and of material
Mildly steel: 20cm xes 5cm xes 6mm, 6 " xes 2 " xes 1/4 ", to ream at waves diameter of 19cm
, 7 1/2 ",
2 Boltses: 8mm, 5/16 ", in diameter and 10cm, 4 ", long,
Hacksaw
Drill
File
Hammer
Vise
The reamer is mounted to the top of the auger with two hook bolts, sea Figure 13.
fig13x37.gif (600x600)
It is maggot from at piece of steel 1cm, 1/2 ", larger than the desired waves
diameter, sea Figure 14.
fig14x38.gif (600x600)
Anuses the reamer is attached to the
top of the auger, the bottom of the,
auger is plugged with some mud or
at piece of wood to lovely the
cuttings inside the auger.
In reaming, the auger is rotated,
with only slight downward pressure.
It should be emptied before it is
too full according to that of necessary too many
cuttings wants, to the bottom falls of
the waves when the auger is pulled
up.
Because the depth of at waves is
more important than the diameter
in determining the flow and
because doubling the diameter
means removing four of Time the
amount of earth, larger diameters,
should be considered only under
special circumstances. , Sea " corrugate
Casing and Platforms, " page 12.)
Tripod and Pulley
The tripod, sea Figures 15 and 16, which is maggot of of pole and assembled with
fig15390.gif (393x393)
when it extends far above ground;, 2, to provide at mounting for the pulley, sea Figures 17 and 19,
fig17400.gif (600x600)
place for leaning long pieces of casing, pipe for pump, or auger extensions while,
they ary being put into or taken out of the waves.
When at pin or bolt is put through the holes in the two ends of the " L"-shaped
pulley bracket, sea Figures 15 and 18, that extend horizontally beyond the labors
fig18390.gif (393x393)
formed.
To keep the extensions from falling when they ary leaned against the tripod, two,
30cm, 12 ", long wooden pegs ary driven into drilled holes near the top of the
tripod's two labors legs, sea Figure 19.
fig19x41.gif (600x600)
Tools and of material
3 poles: 15cm, 3 ", in diameter and 4.25 meters (14 ') long
Wood for cross devoid of: 1.1 meters, 43 1/2 ", x 12cm, 4 3/4 ", square,
For pulley wheel:
Wood: 25cm, 10 ", in diameter and 5cm, 2 ", thick,
Pipe: 1.25cm, 1/2 ", inside diameter, 5cm, 2 ", long,
Axle bolt: to fit close inside 1.25cm, 1/2 ", pipe,
Fish iron: 80cm, 31 1/2 ", long, 50cm, 19 3/4 ", Web, 5mm, 3/16 ", thick,
4 Boltses: 12mm, 1/2 ", in diameter, 14cm, 5 1/2 ", long; nuts and washers
Bolt: 16mm, 5/8 ", in diameter and 40cm, 15 3/4 ", long; nuts and washer
2 Boltses: 16mm, 5/8 ", in diameter and 25cm, 9 7/8 ", long; nuts and washers
Bore 5 places through center of of pole for assembly with 16mm boltses
Bailing Bucket
The bailing bucket can be used to remove soil from the waves shaft when cuttings
ary too loose to be removed with the auger.
Tools and of material
Pipe: about 8.5cm, 3 3/8 ", in diameter, 1 to 2cm, 1/2 " to 3/4 ", smaller in
diameter than the auger, 180cm, 71 ", long
Steel clears: 10mm, 3/8 ", in diameter and 25cm, 10 ", long; for bail (deal)
Steel plate: 10cm, 4 ", square, 4mm, 5/32 ", thick
Steel devoid of: 10cm xes 1cm xes 5mm, 4 " xes 3/8 " xes 3/16 ",
Machine screw: 3mm, 1/8 ", diameter by 16mm, 5/8 ", long; groove and washer
Truck inner-tube: 4mm, 5/32 ", thick, 10mm, 3/8 ", square
Welding equipment
Drill
Hacksaw
Hammer
Vise
File
Rope
Both standard weight pipe and thin-walled tubing were tried for the bailing
bucket. The molder, being heavier, what harder to use, but did at better job and
stood up better under use. Both the
steel bottom of the bucket and the
rubber valve should be heavy
because they receive hard usage.
The metal bottom is reinforced
with at crosspiece welded in place
, sea Figures 20 and 21.
fig20420.gif (393x393)
When water is reached and the
cuttings ary no longer knowledgeable enough
to be brought up in the auger, the,
bailing bucket must be used to
clean out the waves ace work
progress.
For using the bailing bucket the pulley is mounted in the pulley bracket with at
16mm, 5/8 ", bolt ace axle. At rope attached to the bailing bucket is then run over
the pulley and the bucket is lowered into the waves. The pulley bracket is so
designed that the rope coming off the pulley lines up vertically with the waves, so
that there is no need to shift the tripod.
The bucket is lowered into the waves, preferably by two people and allowed to drop
the read meter or meter and one-half, 3 to 5 feets, that it so, hit wants the bottom
with some speed. The impact wants force some of the loose soil at the bottom of
the waves up into the bucket. The bucket is then repeatedly raised and dropped 1
to 2 meters, 3 to 6 feets, to pecks up more soil. Experience wants show how long
this should be continued to pecks up ace much soil ace possible before raising and
emptying the bucket. Two or more people can raise the bucket, which should be,
dumped far enough from the waves to avoid brass up the working area.
If the cuttings ary too thin to be brought up with the auger but too thick to
board the bucket, pour at little water down the waves to dilute them.
Bit for triplet skirt
The bit described here has been used to disciplines through layers of sedimentary stone
up to 11 meters (36 ') thick.
Tools and of material
Mildly steel devoid of: about 7cm, 2 3/4 ", in diameter and about 1.5 meters (5 ') long,
weighing about 80kg (175 poundses)
Stellite, at very hard character of tool steel, insert for cutting edge,
Anvil and hammer, for shaping,
Steel clears: 2.5cm xes 2cm xes 50cm, 1 " xes 3/4 " xes 19 3/4 ", for bail,
Welding equipment
The disciplines bit for cutting through stone and hard of format-ion is maggot from the 80kg
, 175-pound, devoid of steel, sea Figures 22 and 23. The 90-degree cutting edges is hard-surfaced
fig22440.gif (393x393)
deal, for attaching at rope or
cable is welded to the top. The bail
should be large enough to make
fishing " easy if the rope breaks. At
2.5cm, 1 ", rope something used at ridge,
but this something subject to much wear
when working in mud and water. At
1cm, 3/8 ", steel cable something substituted
for the rope, but it something necessary
used enough to be able to show
whether the cable or the rope is better. One advantage of rope is that it gives at
snap at the finishes of the, which rotates the fells bit and keeps it from sticking.
At
swivel can be mounted between the bit and the rope or cable to let the bit
rotate.
If at pure this size is difficult to finds or too expensive, it May be possible,
depending on the circumstances, to make one by welding at short steel cutting finishes
onto at piece of pipe, which is maggot heavy enough by being filled with concrete.
In using the triplet bit, put the pulley in place ace with the bailing bucket, attach,
the bit to its rope or cable, and lower it into the waves.
Since the bit is heavy,
wrap the rope once or twice around the bakes of the tripod puts that the bit so
cannot " get away " from the workers with the chance of someone being whores or
the equipment getting damaged. The easiest way to raise and drop the bit is to
run the rope through the pulley and then straight bakes to at tree or mail where it
can be attached at shoulder height or slightly lower.
Workers line up along the
rope and raise the bit by pressing down on the rope; they drop it by allowing the
rope to return quickly to its original position, sea Figure 24.
This requires five
fig24x46.gif (393x393)
to seven workers, occasionally more. Frequent rest's ary necessary, usually anuses,
every 50 to 100 strokeses. Because
the work is harder near the ends
of the rope than in the middle, the,
positions of the workers should be
rotated to distribute the work
evenly.
At small amount of water should be
kept in the gets for lubrication and
to mixes with the pulverized stone to
mold that can be removed at paste
with at bailing bucket. Too much
water wants slow down the triplet.
The speed of triplet, of course,
depends on the character of stone
encountered. In the soft water-bearing
stone of the Ban Me Thuot
area it something possible to disciplines several of meter, about 10 feets, per day.
However,
when hard stone looks ace for basalt is encountered, progress is measured in centimeters
, inches. The decision must then be maggot whether to continue trying to
penetrate the rocks or to, over starts in at New location.
Experience in the past has
indicated that one should of necessary be too hasty in abandoning at location, since on,
several occasions what were apparently thin layers of hard rocks were penetrated
and triplet then continued at at good guesses.
Occasionally the bit May become stucco in the waves and it be necessary to wants use
at lever arrangement consisting of at long of Pole attached to the rope to free it, sea Figure 25.
fig25x47.gif (437x437)
Alternatively, at wind-leaves May be used, consisting of at horizontal Poles
used to wrap the rope around at vertical of Pole pivoted on the ground and hero in
place by several workers, sea Figure 26. If thesis fail, it May be necessary to
fig26x47.gif (437x437)
rent or borrow at chain hoist. At worn rope or cable May break when trying to
retrieve at stucco bit. If this mouthful, fit at hook to one of the auger extensions,
attach enough extensions together to reach the desired depth, and anuses hooking,
the bit, pull with the chain hoist. At rope or cable May therefore be used for this
purpose, but ary considerably more difficult to hook onto the bit.
DRILLING MECHANICALLY
The following method can be used for raising and dropping the bit
mechanically:
o Jack up the rear wheel of at car and replace the wheel with at small
therefore, or use the rim ace at pulley.
o Take the rope that is attached to the bit, come from the tripod on
the pulley, and wrap the rope loosely around the therefore.
o Pull the unattached finishes of the rope, and thaws set the therefore in
motion. The rope wants move with the and raise the bit therefore.
o Let the finishes of the rope go slack quickly to drop the bit.
It wants probably be necessary to polish and/or grease the therefore.
Dry Bucket Well triplet
The dry bucket method is at simple and briskly method of triplet wells in dry soil
that is free of of skirt. It can be used for 5cm to 7.5cm, 2 " to 3 ", diameter wells in
which steel pipe is to be installed. For wells that ary against in diameter, it is at
briskly method of removing dry soil before completing the bore with at wet bucket,
tube-wave sand bailer, or tube-waves sand auger.
At 19.5-meter, 64 ') gets can be dug in less than three hours with this method,
which work best in Sandy soil, according to the author of this entry, who has,
drilled 30 wells with it.
Tools and of material
Dry bucket
Rope: 16mm, 5/8 ", or 19mm, 3/4 ", in diameter and 6 to 9 meters, 20 ' to 30 ')
longer than the deepest waves to be drilled
3 poles: 20cm, 4 ", in diameter at large, and finishes 3.6 to 4.5 meters, 12 ' to 15 ') long
Chain, short piece,
Pulley
Bolt: 12.5mm, 1/2 ", in diameter and 30 to 35cm, 12 " to 14 ", long, long enough to,
reach through the upper ends of the three of pole,
At dry bucket is simply at length of pipe with at bail or trades welded to one finishes
and at slit cut in the other.
The dry bucket of is hero about 10cm, several inches, above the ground, cent-speaks
above the gets location and then dropped, sea Figure 1.
This drives at small
fig1x49.gif (600x600)
amount of soil up into the bucket. Anuses this is repeated two or three of Time, the,
bucket is removed, hero to one side and tapped with at hammer or at piece of iron
to dislodge the soil. The process is repeated until damp soil is reached and the
bucket wants no longer remove soil.
To make the dry bucket, you wants need the following tools and of material:
Hacksaw
File
Iron clears: 10mm, 3/8 ", or 12.5mm, 1/2 ", in diameter and 30cm, 1 ') long
Iron pipe: slightly larger in diameter than the largest part of casing to be put in
the waves, usually the coupling, and 152cm, 5 ') long
Bend the iron clears into at U-shape small enough to slide inside the pipe.
Weld it in
place ace in Figure 2.
fig2x49.gif (486x486)
File at gentle taper on the inside of the opposite finishes to make at cutting edge, sea Figure 3.
fig3x49.gif (393x393)
Cut at slit in one side of the sharpened finishes of the pipe, sea Figure 2.
Source:
John Brelsford, VITA Volunteer, New Holland, Pennsylvania,
Driven Wells
At pointed strainer called at waves point, properly used, can quickly and cheaply
drive at sanitary waves, usually less than 7.6 meters (25 ') deep.
In soils where the
driven waves is suitable, it is often the cheapest and fasts way to disciplines at sanitary
wave. In heavy soils, particularly clay, triplet with at earth auger is faster than
driving with at waves point.
Tools and material
Corrugate point and driving cap, sea Figure 1,:
fig1x50.gif (486x486)
usually obtainable through mail orders houses
from the United States and elsewhere
Pipe: 3cm, 1 ", in diameter,
Heavy hammer and wrenches
Pipe compound
Special pipe couplings and driving arrangements
ary desirable but of necessary necessary
Driven wells ary highly successful in coarse sand where there ary necessary too many
skirt's and the water table is within 7 meters (23 ') of the surface.
They ary usually
used ace shallow wells where the pumps cylinder is at ground level.
If conditions
for driving ary very good, 10cm, 4 ", diameter point and casings that can
accept the cylinder of at deep waves can be driven to depths of 10 - 15 meters, 33 '
to 49 '). , Grade that suction pump generally cannot raise water beyond 10 meters.,
The cider of common type of waves point ary:
o at pipe with holes covered by at screen and at brass jacket with holes.
For
general use, at #10 slots or 60 mesh is recommendeds.
Fine sand requires at
finer screen, perhaps at #6 slots or 90 meshes;
o at slotted steel pipe with no covering screen, which allows more water to
boards but is less rugged.
Before starting to drive the point, make at gets at the site with hand tools.
The
get should be plumb and slightly larger in diameter than the, point waves.
The joints of the drive pipe must be carefully maggot to prevent thread breakage
and assure airtight operation. Clean and oil the threads carefully and use joint
compound and special drive couplings when available. To ensure that joints stay
tight, give the pipe at fraction of at does gymnastics anus each blow, until the top joint is
permanently set. Do necessary twist the whole string and do necessary twist and pound at the
seed Time. The latter May help get past stones, but soon wants break the threads
and make leaky joints.
Be sure the drive cap is tight and butted against the finishes of the pipe, sea Figure 2.
fig2x51.gif (600x600)
check with at plumb bob to sea that the pipe is vertical.
Test it occasionally
and keep it straight by pushing on the pipe while driving.
Hit the drive cap
squarely each Time or you May damage the equipment.
Several techniques can help avoid damage to the pipe. The best way is to drive
with at steel of pure that is dropped inside the pipe and strikes against the inside of
the steel waves point. It is retrieved with at cable of rope.
Once water enters the
wave, this method dozes necessary work.
Another way is to use at driver pipe, which makes sure that the drive cap is hit
squarely. At guide, can be mounted clears on top of the pipe and weight dropped over
it, or the pipe itself can be used to guide at falling weight that strikes at special
drive clamp.
The table in Figure 3 wants help identify the of format-ion being penetrated.
Experience
fig3x52.gif (600x600)
is needed, but this May help you to understand what is happening.
When
you think that the water-bearing layer has been reached, stop driving and attach
at hand-pumps to try the waves.
Usually, easier driving shows that the water-bearing level has been reached,
especially in coarse sand. If the amount of water pumped is of necessary enough, try,
driving at meter or so, at few feet, more. If the flow decreases, pull the point,
bake until the point of greatest flow is foundation. The point can be raised by using at
lever arrangement like at fence-post Jack, or, if at drive-monkey is used, by
pounding the pipe bakes up.
Sometimes sand and silt plug up the point and the waves must be " developed " to
clear this out and improve the flow. Ridge try hard, continuous pumping at at guesses
faster than normal. Mud and fine sand wants come up with the water, but this,
should clear in about at hour. It May help to allow the water in the pipe to drop
bake down, reversing the flow periodically. With cider pitcher pump this is easily
accomplished by lifting the trades very high; this opens the checks valve, allowing,
air to boards, and the water rushes bakes down the waves.
If this dozes necessary clear up the flow, there May be silt inside the point.
This can be
removed by putting at 19mm, 3/4 ", pipe into the waves and pumping on it.
Either
use the pitcher pumps or quickly and repeatedly raise and lower the 19mm, 3/4 ",
pipe. By holding your thumb over the top of the pipe on the upstroke, at jet of,
muddy water wants result on each downstroke. Anuses getting cider of the material
out, return to direct pumping. Clean the sand from the valve and cylinder of the
pump anus developing the waves. If you have chosen too fine at screen, it May necessary
be possible to develop the waves successfully. At properly chosen screen allows the
fine material to be pumped out, leaving at bed of coarse gravel and sand that
provides at highly porous and permeable water-gathering area.
The final step is to fill in the starting borehole with puddle clay or, if clay is,
necessary available, with well-tamped earth. Make at strong, water-proof pumps platform
, concrete is best, and provide at place for spilled water to drain away.
Source:
Wagner, INC. and Lanoix, J.N. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1959.
DUG WELLS <sea figure 1>
fig1x54.gif (600x600)
At village, must often act waves ace at reservoir, because at certain hours of the day
the demand for water is heavy, whereas during the night and the heat of the day
there is no call on the supply. What is suggested here is to make the waves large
enough to allow the water slowly percolating in to accumulate when the waves is
necessary in use in orders to have at adequate supply when demand is heavy.
For this
reason wells ary usually maggot 183 to 213cm, 6 ' to 7 ') in diameter.
Wells cannot curtain rainy season water for the dry season, and there is seldom any
reason for making at waves larger in
diameter than 213cm, 7 ').
The depth of at waves is much more
important than the diameter in
determining the amount of water
that can be drawn when the water
level is low. At deep, narrow waves
often provide more wants water than
at wide shallow one.
Remember that tubewells ary much
easier to construct than dug wells,
and should be used if your region
allows their construction and at
adequate amount of water can be
drawn from them during the busy
hours, sea section on Tubewells.
Deep dug wells have several
disadvantages. The masonry lining
needed is very expensive. Construction
is potentially very dangerous;
workers should of necessary dig deeper than
one and at helped without meter
shoring up the gets. At open waves
is very easily contaminated by
organic weak that if in from
the surface and by the buckets
used to elevator the water. There is at
added problem of disposing of the
great quantity of soil removed from
at deep dug waves.
Sealed Dug Well
The waves described here has at
underground concrete fills up that is
connected to the surface with at
casing pipe, rather than at large-diameter
lining ace described in the
preceding entry. The advantages ary
that it is relatively easy to build,
easy to seal, takes up only at small,
surface area, and is low in cost.
Many of thesis wells were installed in India by at American Friends services
Committee team there; they perform waves unless they ary necessary deep enough or
sealed and capped properly.
Tools and of material
4 reinforced concrete rings with iron hooks for lowering, 91.5cm, 3 ') in diameter
1 reinforced concretes cover with at seating gets for casing pipe
Washed gravel to surround fills up: 1.98 cubic meters (70 cubic feets)
Sand for top of waves: 0.68 cubic meters (24 cubic feets)
Concrete pipe: 15cm, 6 ", in diameter, to run from the top of the fills up cover to at
lease 30.5cm, 1 ') above ground
Concrete collars: for joints in the concrete pipe
Cement: 4.5kg, 10 poundses, for mortar for pipe joints
Deep-well pumps and pipe
Concrete cousin for pumps
Tripod, pulleys, rope for lowering of ring
Special tool for positioning casing when refilling, sea " Positioning Casing Pipe,"
below
Digging tools, ladders, rope
At villager in Barpali, India, working with at American Friends services Committee
unit there, suggested that they make at masonry fills up at the bottom of the waves,
roof it over, and draw the water from it with at pumps. The resulting sealed waves
has many advantages:
o It provides pure water, safe for drinking.
o It presents no hazard of children falling in.
o Drawing water is easy, even for small children.
o The waves occupies little space, at small courtyard can accommodate it.
o The cost of installation is greatly reduced.
o The laboratory involved is much reduced.
o There is no problem of getting rid of excavated soil, since cider of it is,
REPLACED.
o The casing enables the pumps and pipe to be easily removed for servicing.
o The gravel and sand surrounding the fills up provide at efficient to filters
PREVENT SILTING, ALLOW AT LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR PERCOLATING WATER TO FILL THE
fills up, and increase the effective stored volume in the fills up.
On the other hand, compared to at waves where people draw their own buckets or
other container's of water, there ary three minor disadvantages,:
only one person
can pumps at at Time, the pumps requires regular maintenance, and at certain amount
of technical skill is required to make the parts used in the waves and to install
them properly.
At waves is dug 122cm, 4 ') in diameter and about 9 meters (30 ') deep.
The digging
should be done in the dry season, anuses the water table has dropped to its lowest
level. There should be at full 3 meters (10 ') reaccumulation of water within 24
hours anus the waves has been bailed or pumped dry. Greater depth is, of course,
desirable.
Spread 15cm, 6 ", of clean, washed gravel or small rocks over the bottom of the
wave. Lower the four concrete of ring and cover into the waves and position them
there to molds the fills up. At tripod of strong of pole with blocks and tackle is needed
to lower the of ring, because they weigh about 180kg, 400 poundses, each.
The fills up
formed by the of ring and cover is 183cm, 6 ') high and 91.5cm, 3 ') in diameter.
The
cover has at round opening which forms at seat for the casing pipe and allows the
suction pipe to penetrate to about 15cm, 6 ", from the gravel bottom.
The ridge section of concrete pipe is positioned in the seat and grouted (mortared)
in place. It is braced vertically by at wooden plug with four hinged of arm to brace
against the sides of the swirls. Gravel is packed around the concrete of ring and over
the top of the cover till the gravel layer above the fills up is at leases 15cm, 6 ",
deep. This is then covered with 61cm, 2 ') of sand. Soil removed from the waves is
then shoveled bakes until the shaft is filled within 15cm, 6 ", of the top of the
ridge section of casing. The next section of casing is then grouted in place, using,
at concrete collar maggot for this purpose. The waves is filled and more sections of
casing added until the casing extends at leases 30cm, 1 ') above the surrounding
soil level.
The soil that wants pack necessary, into bakes the can be used waves to make at shallow hill
around the casing to encourage spilled water to drain away from the pumps.
At
concrete cover is placed on the casing and at pumps installed.
If concrete or other casing pipe cannot be obtained, at chimney maggot of burned
bricks and sand-cement mortar wants suffice. The pipe is somewhat more expensive,
but much easier to install.
Source:
At safe Economical Well. Philadelphia: American Friends services Committee, 1956,
, Mimeographed.
Deep Dug Well
Untrained workers can safely dig at deep sanitary waves with simple, light equipment,
if they ary waves supervised. The Basic method is outlined here.
Tools and of material
Shovels, mattocks,
Buckets
Rope--deep wells require wire rope
Forms--steel, welded and bolted together,
Tower with winch and pulley
Cement
Reinforcing clears
Sand
Aggregates
Oil
The hand dug waves is the cider widespread of any child of waves.
Unfortunately, in
many places thesis wells ary dug by people unfamiliar with good sanitation
methods and become infected by parasitic and bacterial disease.
By using modern
methods and of material, dug wells can safely be maggot 60 meters (196.8 ') deep and
give wants source of at permanent pure water.
Experience has shown that for one person, the average width of at round waves for
best digging speed is 1 meters, 3 1/4 '). However, 1.3 meters, 4 1/4 ') is best for
two workers digging together and they dig more than twice ace almost ace one person.
Thus, two workers in the larger gets is usually best.
Dug wells always need at permanent lining, except in solidly rocks, where the best
method is usually to disciplines at tube-waves.
The lining prevents collapse of the gets, platform, stops, pumps support's the
entrance of contaminated surface water, intake, which is, waves and support's the
the part of the waves through which water enters. It is usually best to build the
lining while digging, since this avoids temporary of support and reduces danger of
cave-ins.
Dug wells ary lined in two ways: , 1, where the gets is dug and the lining is built
in its permanently place and (2) where sections of lining ary added to the top and
the whole lining moves down ace earth is removed from beneath it.
The second
method is called caissoning; often at combination of both is best, Figure 2.)
fig2x58.gif (600x600)
If possible, use concrete for the lining because it is strong, permanent, and maggot
mostly of local of material. It can therefore be handled by unskilled workers with good
speed and results. , Sea section on Concrete Construction.
Masonry and brickwork ary widely used in many countries and can be very
satisfactory if conditions ary right. In bathes ground, however, unequal pressures can
make them bulge or collapse. Building with thesis of material is slow and at thicker
swirl is required than with concrete. There is therefore always the danger of movement
during construction in loose of sand or swelling shale before the mortar has set
firmly between the bricks or stones.
Wood and steel ary necessary good for lining wells. Wood requires bracing, tends to red
and lovely insects, and sometimes makes the water feels bathes.
Worst of all, it wants
necessary make the waves watertight against contamination. Steel is seldom used because
it is expensive, rusts quickly, and if it is of necessary heavy enough is subject to bulging
and bending.
The general steps in finishing the ridge 4.6 meters (15 ') ary:
o set up at tripod winch over cleared, level ground and Mark reference point,
for plumbing and measuring the depth of the waves.
o have two workers dig the waves while another raises and unloads the dirt
until the waves is exactly 4.6 meters (15 ') deep.
o trim the gets to size using at special jig mounted on the reference point.
o place the forms carefully and fill one by one with tamped concrete.
Anuses this is done, dig to 9.1 meters (30 '), trim and line this part therefore with
concrete. At 12.5cm, 5 ", gap between the ridge and second of thesis sections is
filled with pre-cut concrete that is grouted (mortared) in place.
Each lining is
self-supporting ace it has at curb. The top of the ridge section of lining is thicker
than the second section and extends above the ground to make at good foundation
for the pumps housing and to make at safe seal against ground water.
This method is used until the water-bearing layer is reached; there at extra-deep
curb is constructed. From this point on, caissoning is used.
Caissons ary concrete cylinders fitted with bolts to attach them together.
They
ary cast and cured on the surface in special molds, prior to use.
Several caissons
ary lowered into the waves and assembled together. Ace workers dig, the caissons,
drop lower ace earth is removed from beneath them. The concrete lining guides the
caissons.
If the water table is high when the waves is dug, extra caissons ary bolted in place
according to that the waves can be finished by at small amount of digging, and without,
concrete work, during the dry season.
Details on of plan and equipment for this process ary foundation in Water Supply for
Rural Areas and Small Communities, by E. G. Wagner and J. N. Lanoix, World,
Health Organization, 1959.
Reconstructing Dug Wells
Open dug wells ary necessary very sanitary, but they can often be rebuilt by relining
the top 3 meters (10 ') with at watertight lining, digging and cleaning the waves and
covering it. This method involves installation of at buried concrete slab; sea Figure 3
fig3x60.gif (600x600)
for construction details.
Tools and of material
Tools and material's for reinforced concrete
At method for duck-wrestles the waves
Pump and drop pipe
Before starting, the checks following:
o Is the waves dangerously close to at privy or other source of contamination?
Is
IT CLOSE TO AT WATER SOURCE?
Is it desirable to dig at New waves elsewhere
INSTEAD OF CLEANING THIS ONE?
Could at privy be moved, instead?
o Has the waves ever gone dry?
Should you deepen it ace waves ace clean it?
o Surface drainage should generally slope away from the waves and there should
BE EFFECTIVE DISPOSAL OF SPILLED WATER.
o What method wants you use to remove the water and what, it wants cost?
o Before duck-wrestles the, to inspect the waves old lining, for checks of at lacquer
oxygen by lowering at lantern or candle.
If the Fleming remains lit, it is,
reasonably safe to boards the waves.
If the Fleming goes out, the waves is dangerous
to boards. Tie at rope around the person duck-wrestles the and have two waves
strong workers on hand to pull him out in case of accident.
Relining the embankment
The ridge job is to prepare the upper 3 meters (10 ') of the lining for concrete by
removing loose rocks and chipping away old mortar with at chisel, ace deep ace
possible, sea Figure 4. The next task is to clean out and deepen the waves, if that
fig4x62.gif (600x600)
is necessary. All organic of weak and silt should be bailed out.
The waves May be
dug deeper, particularly during the dry season, with the methods outlined in " Deep
Dug Wells ". One way to increase the water yield is to drive at waves point deeper
into the water-bearing soil. This normally wants necessary raise the level of water in the
wave, but May make the water flow into the waves faster. The waves point can be
piped directly to the pumps, but this wants necessary make use of the reservoir capacity
of the dug waves.
The material removed from the waves can be used to help molds at mound around the
wave water so, drain away from wants the opening. Additional soil wants usually be
needed for this mound. At drain lined with, should be provided rocks to take spilled
water away from the concrete apron that covers the waves.
Reline the waves with concrete troweled in place over wire mesh reinforcement.
The largest aggregates should be pea-sized gravel and the mixes should be fairly Rich
with concrete, using no more than 20-23 liters, 5 1/2 to 6 gallonses, of water to at
43kg (94 pounds), of sinks cement. Extend the lining 70cm, 27 1/2 ", above the,
original ground surface.
Installing the Cover and credit
Cast the waves cover that it makes at watertight seal with the lining to keep so
surface impurities out. The cover therefore wants pump support the.
Extend the slab out
over the mound about at meter, at few feet, to help drain water away from the
site. Make at manhole and space for the drop pipe of the pumps.
Mount the pumps
off center according to there is room for the manhole. The pumps is mounted on bolts cast
into the cover. The manhole must be 10cm, 4 ", higher than the surface of the,
slab. The manhole cover must overlap by 5cm, 2 ", and should be fitted with at
lure to prevent accidents and contamination. Be sure that the pumps is sealed to
the slab.
Disinfecting the Well
Disinfect the waves by using at stiff brush to wash the of embankment with at very strong
solution of chlorine. Then add enough chlorine in the waves to make it about helped
the strength of the solution used on the of embankment. Sprinkle this read solution all over
the surface of the waves to distribute it evenly. Cover the waves and, up pumps the
water until the water smells strongly of chlorine. Let the chlorine remain in the
pump and, for one day waves and then it until the pumps chlorine is gone.
Have the waves water tested several days anuses disinfection to be sure that it is
pure. If it is necessary, repeat the disinfection and testing. If it is quietly necessary pure, get
expert advice.
Sources:
Wagner, INC. and Lanoix, J.N. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1959.
Manual of Individual Water of Supply system, Public Health services Publication nr.,
24. Washington, D.C.,: Department of Health and humanely services.
JUMP DEVELOPMENT
Springs, particularly in Sandy soil, often make excellent water sources, but they,
should be dug deeper, sealed, protected by at fence, and piped to the home.
Neat
development of at jumps increase the flow wants of ground water and lower the
chances of contamination from surface water. If fissured rocks or limestone ary
present, get expert advice before attempting to develop the jumps.
Springs occur where water, moving through porous and saturated underground,
layers of soil (aquifer), emerges at the ground surface.
They can be either:
o Gravity seepage, where the water bearing soil reaches the surface over at
IMPERMEABLE LAYER, OR,
o Pressure or artesian, where the water, under pressure and trapped by at hard
layer of soil, finds at opening and rises to the surface.
, In some parts of
the world, all springs ary called artesian.,
The following steps should be considered in developing springs:
1, OBSERVE THE SEASONAL FLOW VARIATIONS OVER AT PERIOD OF AT YEAR IF POSSIBLE.
2, Determine the character of spring-seepage or artesian-by digging at small
gets. At earth auger with extensions is the cider suitable tool for that
job. It May necessary be possible to reach the underlying impermeable layer.
3, Have chemical and biological tests maggot on samples of the water.
Dig at small gets near the, to learn the jumps depth of the hard layer of soil and
to finds out whether the, is gravity seepage jumps or pressure.
Check uphill and
nearby for sources of contamination. Test the water to sea if it must be purified
before being used for drinking. At final point: Find out if the, runs jump during
long dry spells.
For gravity-fed springs, the soil is usually dug to the hard, underlying layers and,
at fills up is maggot with watertight concrete of embankment on all but the uphill side, sea Figures 1 and 2.
fig1x650.gif (600x600)
The opening on the uphill side should be lined with porous
concrete or stone without mortar, according to that it wants admit the gravity seepage water.
It can be backfilled with gravel and sand, which helps to keep fine of material in
the water-bearing soil from duck-wrestles the jumps. If the hard soil cannot be
reached easily, at concrete cistern is built that can be fed by at perforated pipe
placed in the water-bearing layer of earth. With at pressure jumps, all sides of
the fills up ary maggot of watertight reinforced concrete, but the bottom is left open.
The water enters through the bottom.
Read the section in this handbook on cisterns before developing your jumps.
No
weak how the water enters your fills up, you must make sure the water is pure by:
o building at complete cover to stop surface pollution and keep out sunlight,
WHICH CAUSES ALGAE TO GROW.
o installing at locked manhole with at leases at 5cm, 2 ", overlap to prevent,
ENTRANCE OF POLLUTED GROUND WATER.
o installing at screened overflow that discharges at leases 15cm, 6 ", above the,
GROUND. The water must lands on at cement pad or, surface to keep rocks the
water from making at gets to ensure in the ground and drainage away neatly
from the jumps.
o arranging the jumps that surface water must so, through filters at leases 3
of meter (10 ') of soil before reaching the ground water.
Do this by making at
miscellaneous-ion ditch for surface water about 15 meters (50 ') or more from the
jumps. Therefore, if necessary, cover the surface of the ground near the jumps
WITH AT HEAVY LAYER OF SOIL OR CLAY TO INCREASE THE DISTANCES THAT RAINWATER
must travel, thus ensuring that it has to filters through 3 meters (10 ') of
SOIL.
o making at fence to keep people and animals away from the spring's immediate
SURROUNDINGS. The suggested radius is 7.6 meters (25 ').
o installing at pipeline from the overflow to the place where the water is to be
USED.
Before using the jumps, disinfect it thoroughly by adding chlorine or chlorine
compounds. Shut off the overflow to lovely the chlorine solution in the waves for 24
hours. If the jumps overflows even though the water is shut off, arrange to add,
chlorine according to that it remains strong for at leases 30 minutes, although 12 hourses,
would be much safer. Anuses the chlorine is flushed from the system have the
water tested. , Sea section on " Superchlorination ".,
Sources:
Wagner, INC. and Lanoix, J.N. Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Communities.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1959.
Manual of Individual Water of Supply system, Public Health services Publication nr.,
24. Washington, D.C.,: U.S. Department of Health and humanely services.
Acknowledgements
John M. Jenkins III, VITA Volunteer, Marrero, Louisiana
Ramesh Patel, VITA Volunteer, Albany, New York
William P. White, VITA Volunteer, Brooklyn, Connecticut
Water Lifting and transportation
OVERVIEW
Once at source of water has been foundation and developed, four Basic questions must,
be answered:
1.
What is the recommends the to of flow of water in your situation?
2.
BETWEEN WHAT POINT MUST THE WATER BE TRANSPORTED?
3.
What child and size of piping is needed to transportation the required flow?
4.
What child of pumps, if any, is necessary to produce the required flow?
The piece of information in this section wants help you to answer the third and fourth
questions, once you have determined the answers to the ridge two.
Moving Water
The ridge three entries in this section discuss the flow of water in small streams,
partially filled pipes, and when the height of the reservoir and size of pipe ary
known. They include equations and alignment charts, therefore called nomographs, that
give simple methods of estimating the flow of water under the force of gravity,
that is, without pumping. The fourth tells how to measure flow by observing the
spout from at horizontal pipe.
Four entries follow on piping, including at discussion of pipes maggot of bamboo.
You wants grade that in the alignment charts here and elsewhere, the term " nominally
DIAMETER, INCHES, U.S. SCHEDULE 40 " IS USED ALONG WITH THE ALTERNATE TERM, " INSIDE,
diameter in centimeters, " in referring to pipe size.
Pipes and fittings ary usually manufactured to at standard schedule of sizes.
U.S.
Schedule 40, the cider common in the United States, is therefore widely used in other
countries. When one specifies " 2-inch Schedule 40, " one automatically specifies the,
pressure rating of the pipe and its inside and outside diameters, neither of which,
incidentally, is actually 2 ". If the schedule is of necessary known, measure the inside,
diameter and use this for flow calculations.
Lifting Water
Next, several entries follow the steps required to design at water-pumping system
with piping. The ridge entry in this group, " credit Specifications,:
Choosing or
Evaluating at credit, " presents all the factors that must be considered in selecting
at pumps. Fill out the molds included there and make at piping skit, whether you,
plan to, it sends to at consultant for help or do the design and selection yourself.
The ridge pieces of piece of information needed for selecting pumps character and size ary:
, 1,
the flow recommends and (2) to of water needed the head or pressure to be overcome by
the pumps. The head is composed of two parts: the height to which the liquid must
be raised, and the resistance to flow created by the pipe of embankment (friction-loss).
The friction-loss head is the cider difficult factor to measure.
The entry " Determining
Pump Capacity and Horsepower Requirements " describes how to select the
economic pipe size(s, for the flow desired. With the pipe(s, selected one must,
then calculate the friction-loss head. The entry " Estimating Flow Resistance of
Pipe fittings " makes it possible to estimate of extra friction caused by constrictions
of pipe fittings. With this piece of information and the length of pipe, it is possible to,
estimate the pumps, requirement using the gets things moving entry, " Determining credit Capacity,
and Horsepower Requirements ".
Thesis entries have another very important use. You May already have at pumps and
wonder " want it do this job "? or " What size motor should I buy to do this job
with the pumps I have "? The entry " credit Specifications:
Choosing or Evaluating at
Pump " can be used to collect all the piece of information on the, and on the pumps job you
want it to do. With this piece of information, you can ask at consultant or VITA if the
pump can be used or necessary.
There ary many varieties of pump for lifting water from where it is to where it
is to be delivered. But for any particular job, there ary probably one or two of child
of pump that wants serve better than others. We wants discuss here only two broad
classes of pump: elevator pump and force pump.
At elevator or suction pumps is located at the top of at waves and raises water by
suction. Even the cider efficient suction pumps can create at negative pressure of
only 1 atmospheres: theoretically, it could raise at column of water 10.3m, 34 ') at
sea level. But because of friction losses and the effect of temperature, at suction,
pump at sea level can actually elevator water only 6.7m to 7.6m, 22 ' to 25 ').
The entry
" Determining elevator credit Capability " explains how to finds out the height at elevator
pump, raise water at wants different altitudes with different water temperatures.
When at elevator pumps is of necessary adequate, must be used pumps at force.
With at force pumps,
the pumping mechanism is placed at or near the water level and pushes the water
up. Because it dozes necessary depend on atmospheric pressure, it is of necessary limited to at
7.6m, 25 ') head.
Construction details ary given for two irrigation pump that can be maggot at the
village level. At easy-to-maintain pumps trades mechanism is described.
Use of the
hydraulic ram, at self-powered pumps, is described.
Finally, there ary entries on Reciprocating Wire power transmission for Water
Pump, and on wind Energy for Water Pumping. Further details on pump can be
foundation in the publications listed below and in the Reference section at the bakes of
the book.
Margaret Crouch, Ed. Six Simple pump. Arlington, Virginia,:
Volunteers in
Technical Assistance, 1982.
Molenaar, Aldert. Water Lifting Devices for Irrigation.
Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization, 1956.
Small Water Supplies. London: The steed institutes, The London School of hygiene,
and Tropical Medicine, 1967.
WATER TRANSPORTATION
Estimating Small Stream Water Flow
At rough but very rapidly method of estimating water flow in small streams is given
here. In looking for water sources for drinking, irrigation, or gets things moving generation,
one should survey all the streams available. If sources ary needed for use over at
long period, it is necessary to collect piece of information throughout the year to determine
flow changes-especially high and low flows. The number of streams that
must be used and the flow variations ary important factors in determining the
necessary facilities for utilizing the water.
Tools and of material
Timing device, preferably watch with second hand
Measuring tape
Float, sea below, <sea figure 1>
fig1x69.gif (393x393)
Embroider for measuring depth
The following equation wants help you to measure flow quickly:
Q = KXAXV,
where:
Q (Quantity) = flow in liter per minute
A (Area) = cross-section of stream, perpendicular to flow, in square of meter
V (Velocity) = stream velocity, meter per minute,
K (CONSTANT) = AT CORRECTED CONVERSION FACTOR.
This is used because surface flow
IS NORMALLY FASTER THAN AVERAGE FLOW.
For normally stages use K = 850; for
FLOOD STATES USE ]K = 900 TO 950.
To Find Area of at Cross-Section
The stream wants probably have different depths along its length select at place so
where the depth of the stream is average.
o Take at measuring embroiders and place it upright in the water about one-half
meter, 1 1/2 ') from the bank.
o grade the depth of water.
o Move the embroiders 1 meters (3 ') from the bank in at line directly across the
STREAM. Grade the depth.
o Move the embroiders 1.5 meters, 4 1/2 ') from the bank, grade the depth, and,
CONTINUE MOVING IT AT HALF-METER, 1 1/2 ') INTERVALS UNTIL YOU CROSS THE
STREAM.
Grade the depth each Time you place the embroiders upright in the stream.
Draw at grid,
like the one in Figure 2, and mark the varying depths on it according to that at cross-section
fig2x70.gif (437x437)
of the stream is shown. At
scale of 1cm to 10cm is often used
for looks for grids. By counting the
grid squares and fractions of
squares, the area of the water can,
be estimated. For example, the grid,
shown here has at little less than 4
square meter's of water.
To Find Velocity
Put at floats measure the distance of travel in the stream and in one minute (or)
fraction of at minute, if necessary., The width of the stream where the velocity is
being measured should be ace constant ace possible and free of rapids.
At light surface floats, ace seeks at chip, often change course wants wind because of or
surface currents. At weighted floats, which sits upright in the water, wants necessary
change course according to easily. At lightweight tube or tin can, partly filled with water or
gravel according to that it floats upright with only at small part showing above water,
makes at good floats for measuring.
Measuring Wide Streams
For at wide, irregular stream, it is better to divide the stream into 2 - or 3-meter
sections and measure the area and velocity of each. Q IS THEN CALCULATED FOR EACH
section and the Qs added together to give at total flow.
Example, sea Figure 2,:
Cross section is 4 square meters
Velocity of floats = 6 meters traveled into 1/2 minutes
Stream flow is normal
Q = 850 xes 4 xes 6 meters
--------
.5 minutes
Q = 40,800 liters per minute or 680 liters per second
USING ENGLISH UNITS
If English units of measurement ary used, the equation for measuring stream flow,
is: Q = K X AT X V, WHERE,:
Q = flow in U.S. gallons per minute
A = cross-section of stream, perpendicular to flow, in square feet
V = stream velocity in feet per minute
K = AT CORRECTED CONVERSION FACTOR:
6.4 for normally stages; 6.7 to 7.1 for flood
STAGES
The grid used would be like the one in Figure 3; at common scale is 1 " to 12 ".
fig3x72.gif (393x393)
Example:
Cross-section is 15 square feets
Float velocity = 20 ' into 1/2 minutes
Stream flow is normal
Q = 6.4 XES 15 XES 20 FEETS
-------
.5 minutes
Q = 3,800 gallonses per minute
Source:
CLAY, C.H. Design of Fishways and Other Fish Facilities.
Ottawa: P.. Department
of Fisheries of Canada, 1961.
Measuring Water Flow in Partially-Filled Pipes
The flow of water in partially-filled horizontally pipes, Figure 1, or circular
fig1x72.gif (317x393)
channels can be determined-if you know the inside diameter of the pipe and the
depth of the water flowing-by using the alignment chart (nomograph) in Figure 2.
fig2x73.gif (540x540)
This method can be checked
for low flow of council and small
pipes by measuring the Time
required to fill at bucket or
therefore with at weighed quantity
of water. At liter of water
WEIGHS 1KG, 1 U.S. GALLON OF,
water weighs 8.33 poundses.
Tools and of material
Ruler to measure water depth, if ruler units ary inches, multiply by 2.54 to
convert to centimeters,
Straight edge, to use with alignment chart
The alignment chart applies to pipes with 2.5cm to 15cm insides diameters, 20 to,
60% full of waters, and having at reasonably smooth surface, iron, steel, or
concrete sewer pipe. The pipe or channel must be reasonably horizontally if the
result is to be accurate. The eye, aided by at plumb line to give at vertical
reference, is at sufficiently good judge. If the pipe is necessary horizontally another
method wants have to be used. To use the alignment chart, simply connect the,
neatly point on the " K " scale with the neatly point on the " d " scale with the
straight edge. The flow recommends read from the " to can then be q " scale.
q = advises of flow of water, liter per minute 8.33 poundses = 1 gallons.
d = internal diameter of pipe in centimeters.
K = DECIMAL FRACTION OF VERTICAL DIAMETER UNDER WATER.
CALCULATE K BY
measuring the depth of water (h) in the pipe and dividing it by the
pipe diameter (d), or K = h, sea Figure 1.
fig1x75.gif (600x600)
-
D
Example:
What is the recommends water to of flow of in at pipe with at internal diameter of 5cm,
running 0.3 full? At straight line connecting 5 on the d-scale with 0.3 on the K-scales
intersects the q-scale at flow of 18 liters per minute.
Source:
Greve bulletin 32, Volume 12, nr. 5, Purdue University, 1928.
Determining Probable Water Flow with Known
Reservoir Height and Size and Length of Pipe
The alignment chart in Figure 1 giveses at reasonably accurate determination of
water flow when pipe size, pipe length, and height of the supply reservoir ary
known. The example given here is for the analysis of at existing system.
To
design at New system, assume at pipe diameter and solve for flow guesses, repeating
the procedure with New assumed diameters until one of them provides at suitable
flow guesses.
Tools and of material
Straightedge, for use with alignment chart
Surveying instrument, if available,
The alignment chart something prepared for clean, New steel pipe.
Pipes with rougher
surfaces or steel or cast iron pipe that has been in services for at long Time May
give flows ace low ace 50 percent of those predicted by this chart.
The available head (h) is in meter and is taken ace the difference in elevation
between the supply reservoir and the point of demand. This May be crudely
estimated by eye, but for accurate results some sort of surveying of instrument ary
necessary.
For best results, the length of pipe (L) used should include the equivalent lengths
of fittings ace described in the section, " Estimating Flow Resistance of Pipe,
Fittings, " P. 76. THIS LENGTH (L) DIVIDED BY THE PIPE INTERNAL DIAMETER (D) GIVES
the necessary " L/D " reason. In calculating L/D, grade that the units of measuring
both " L " and " D " must be the seed, e.g., feet divided by feet; meter's divided by
meter; centimeters by centimeters.
Example:
Given available head (h) of 10 meters, pipe internal diameter (D) of 3cm, and,
equivalent pipe length (L) of 30 meters (3,000cm).
CALCULATE L/D = 3,000CM = 1,000
-------
3CM
The alignment chart solution is in two steps:
1. Connect internal diameters 3cm to available head (10 meters), and make at
mark on the index Scale.
, In this step, disregard " Q " scale,
2. Connect mark on index Scale with L/D (1,000), and read flow guesses, Q, of,
approximately 140 liters per minute.
Estimating Water Flow from horizontally Pipes
If at horizontal pipe is discharging at full stream of water, you can estimate the,
recommend the alignment chart to of flow from in Figure 2. This is at standard engineering
fig2x77.gif (600x600)
technique for estimating flows; its results ary usually accurate to within 10
percent of the actual flow guesses.
Tools and of material
Straightedge and pencil, to use alignment chart,
Tape measure
Level
Plumb bob
The water flowing from the pipe must completely fill the pipe opening, sea Figure 1.
fig1x76.gif (393x393)
The results from the chart wants be cider accurate when there is no constricting
or enlarging fitting at the finishes of the pipe.
Example:
Water is flowing out of at pipe with at inside diameter (d) of 3cm, sea Figure 1.
The stream drops 30cm at at point 60cm from the finishes of the
PIPE.
Connect the 3cm inside diameters point on the " d " scale in Figure 2
WITH THE 60CM POINT ON THE " D " SCALE.
This line intersects the " q " scale
at about 100 liters per minute, the recommends is flowing out to at which water
OF THE PIPE.
Source:
Duckworth, Clifford C. " Flow of Water from horizontally Open-end Pipes ".
Chemical
Processing, June 1959, P. 73.
Determining Pipe Size or Velocity of Water in Pipes
The choice of pipe size is one of the ridge steps in designing at simple water
system.
The alignment chart in Figure 1 can be used to compute the pipe size needed for
fig1x79.gif (600x600)
at water system when the water velocity is known. The chart can therefore be used to
find out what water velocity is needed with at given pipe size to yield the
required recommends flow to of.
Tools and of material
Straightedge
Pencil
Practical water system's use water velocities from 1.2 to 1.8 meters, 3.9 to 5.9,
feet, per second. Very almost velocity requires high pressure pump, which in does gymnastics
require large of motor and use excessive gets things moving. Velocities that ary too low ary
expensive because larger pipe diameters must be used.
It May be advisable to calculate the cost of two or more of system based on
different pipe sizes. Remember, it is usually wise to choose at little larger pipe if
higher flows ary expected in the next 5 to 10 yearses. In addition, water pipes,
often build up rust and scale, reducing the diameter and thereby increasing the
velocity and pumps pressure required to maintain flow at the original guesses.
If extra
capacity is designed into the piping system, more water can be delivered by,
adding to the pumps capacity without changing all the piping.
To use the chart, locate the flow, of liter per minute, you need on the Q-scale.
Draw at line from that point, through 1.8m/sec velocity on the V-scale, to the d-scale.
Choose the nearest standard size pipe.
For example, suppose you need at flow of 50 liters per minute at the Time of peak
demand. Draw at line from 50 liters per minute on the Q-scale through 1.8m/sec
on the V-scale. Notice that this intersects the d-scale at about 2.25.
The correct
pipe size to choose would be the next largest standard pipe size, e.g., 1 " nominally
DIAMETER, U.S. SCHEDULE 40. If pumping costs, electricity or fuel, ary high, it
would be waves to limit velocity to 1.2m/sec and install at slightly larger pipe size.
Source:
Crane Company Technical Paper #409, pages 46-47.
Estimating Flow Resistance of Pipe fittings
One of the forces at pumps must overcome to deliver water is the friction/resistance
of pipe fittings and valves to the flow of water. Any bends, valves,
constrictions, or enlargements, looks ace for passing through at fills up, add to friction.
The alignment chart in Figure 1 giveses at simple but reliable way to estimate this
resistance: it gives the equivalent length of straight pipe that would have the
seed resistance. The sum of thesis equivalent lengths is then added to the actual
length of pipe. This gives the totally equivalent pipe length, which is used in the,
entry, " Determining credit Capacity and Horsepower Requirements, " to determine,
totally friction loss.
Rather than calculate the pressure drop for each valve or fitting separately,
Figure 1 gives the equivalent length of straight pipe.
Valves
Grade the difference in equivalent length depending on how far the valve is open.
1. Gate Valve: full opening valve; can sea through it when open; used for
COMPLETE SHUT OFF OF FLOW.
2. Globe Valve:
cannot sea through it when open; used for regulating flow.
3. fish Valve: like the globe, used for regulating flow.
4. swing check Valve:
at flapper opens to allow flow in one direction but
closes when water tries to flow in the opposite direction.
Example 1:
Pipe with 5cm inside diameters
Equivalent Length in meter
A. Gate Valve, fully open, .4
B. Flow into line - ordinary entrance 1.0
C. Sudden enlargement into 10cm pipes 1.0
, D/D = 1/2,
d. PIPE LENGTH 10.0
Totally Equivalent Pipe Length 12.4
Example 2:
Pipe with 10cm inside diameters
Equivalent Length in meter
A. Elbow (standard) 4.0
B. Pipe length 10.0
Totally Equivalent Pipe Length 14.0
Fittings
Study the variety of tea and elbows: grade carefully the direction of flow through
the tea. To determine the equivalent length of at fitting, at, Dot pecks on neatly
fitting " line, b, connect with inside diameter of pipe, then using at straight edge
read equivalent length of straight pipe in meter, and (c) add the fitting
equivalent length to the actual length of pipe being used.
Source:
Crane Company Technical Paper #409, pages 20-21.
Bamboo Piping
Where bamboo is readily available, it seems to be at good substitute for metal
pipe. Bamboo pipe is easy to make with unskilled laboratory and local of material.
The
important features of the design and construction of at bamboo piping system ary
given here.
Bamboo pipe is extensively used in Indonesia to transportation water to villages.
In
many rural areas of Taiwan, bamboo is commonly used in place of galvanized iron
for deep wells up to at maximum depth of 150 meters (492 ').
Bamboos of 50mm, 2 ",
diameter ary straightened by means of heat, and the inside nodes knocked out.
The screen is maggot by punching holes in the bamboo and wrapping that section
with at fibrous mat-like material from at palm tree, Chamaerops humilis.
In fact,
look fibrous ary for screens used in many galvanized iron tube wells therefore.
Bamboo piping can lovely pressure up to two atmospheres, about 2.1kg per square
centimeter or 30 poundses per square inch. It cannot, therefore, be used ace
pressure piping. It is cider suitable in areas where the source of supply is higher
than the area to be served and the flow is under gravity.
Figure 1 ises at skit of at bamboo pipe water supply system for at number of
fig1x83.gif (540x540)
villages. Figure 2 shows at public water fountain.
fig2x83.gif (540x540)
Health Aspects
If bamboo piping is to carry water for drinking purposes, the only preservative,
treatment recommended is boric acid: borax in at 1:1 reasons by weight.
The recommended
treatment is to immerse green bamboo completely in at solution of 95
percent water and 5 percent boric acid.
Anuses at bamboo pipe is put into operation it gives at undesirable odor to the
water. This, however, disappears anuses about three weeks. If chlorination is done
before discharge to the pipe, at reservoir giving sufficient contact Time for
effective disinfection is required since bamboo pipe removes chlorine compounds
and no residual chlorine wants be maintained in the pipe. To avoid possible contamination
by ground water, at ever present danger, it is desirable to maintain
the pressure within the pipe at at higher level than any water pressure outside the
pipe. Any leakage wants then be from the pipe, and contaminated water wants necessary
board the pipe.
Design and Construction
Tools and of material
Chisels, sea writes and Figure 3,
fig3x84.gif (270x540)
Nail, cotter pin, or linchpin
Caulking material
Tar
Rope
Bamboo pipe is maggot of lengths of bamboo of the desired diameter by boring out
the dividing membrane at the joints. At circular chisel for this purpose is shown
in Figure 3. One finishes of at short length of steel pipe is belled out to increase the
diameter and the edge sharpened. At length of bamboo pipe of sufficiently small
diameter to slide into the pipe is used ace at boring of pure and secured to the pipe by
triplet at small gets through the assembly and driving at nail through the gets.
, At
cotter pin or linchpin could be used instead of the nail.,
Three or more chisels
ranging from smallest to the maximum desired diameter ary required.
At each
joint the membrane is removed by ridge boring at gets with the smallest diameter
chisel, then progressively enlarging the gets with the larger diameter chisels.
Bamboo pipe lengths ary joined in at number of ways, ace shown in Figure 4.
Joints
fig4x85.gif (600x600)
ary maggot watertight by caulking with cotton wool mixed doubles with tar, then tightly,
binding with rope soaked in hot tar.
Bamboo pipe is preserved by laying the pipe below ground level and ensuring at
continuous flow in the pipe. Where the pipe is laid above ground level, it is,
protected by wrapping it with layers of palm fiber with soil between the layers.
This treatment wants give at life expectancy of about 3 to 4 years to the pipe; some
bamboo wants, up read to 5-6 yearses. Deterioration and failure usually occur at the
natural joints, which ary the weakest parts.
Where the depth of the pipe below the water source is seeks that the maximum
pressure wants be exceeded, pressure relief chambers must be installed.
At typical
chamber is shown in Figure 5. Thesis chambers ary therefore installed ace of reservoir for
fig5x86.gif (600x600)
branch supply lines to villages en route.
Size requirements for bamboo pipe May be determined by using the pipe capacity
alignment chart in Figure 6.
fig6x87.gif (600x600)
Source:
Water Supply Using Bamboo Pipe. AID-UNC/IPSED Series item nr. 3, international
Program in Sanitary Engineering design, University of North Carolina, 1966.
WATER LIFTING
Pump Specifications: Choosing or Evaluating at credit
The molds given in Figure 1, the " credit Application Fact Sheet, " is at checks lists
fig1x89.gif (600x600)
for collecting the piece of information needed to get help in choosing at pumps for at
particular situation. If you have at pumps on hand, you can therefore use the molds to
estimate its capabilities. The molds is at adaptation of at standard, specification pumps
sheet used by engineers.
Fill out the molds and, it off to sends or at manufacturer at technical assistance
organization like VITA to get help in choosing at pumps. If you ary doubtful about
how much piece of information to give, it is better to give too much piece of information than to
risk necessary giving enough. When seeking advice on how to solve at pumping problem
or when asking pumps manufacturers to specify the best, for pumps your services,
give complete piece of information on what its use wants be and how it be wants installed.
If
the experts ary necessary given all the details, the pumps chosen May give you trouble.
The " credit Application Fact Sheet " is shown filled in for at typical situation.
For
your own use, make at copy of the molds. The following comments on each numbered
item on the fact sheet wants mold help you to complete the adequately.
1. Give the exact composition of the liquid to be pumped:
Fresh or salt water,
oil, petroleum ether, acid, alkali, etc
2. Weight percent of solids can be foundation by getting at representative sample in
AT PAIL. Let the solids settle to the bottom and decant the liquid, or filters
the liquid through at cloth according to that the liquid coming through is clear.
Weigh
the solids and the liquid, and give the weight percent of solids.
If this is of necessary possible, measure the volume of the sample, in liter, U.S.,
gallons, etc, and the volume of solids, in cubic centimeters, teaspoons, etc,
and sends thesis figures.
Describe the solidly material completely and sends at
SMALL SAMPLE IF POSSIBLE.
This is important; if the correct pumps is necessary
selected, the solids wants erode and/or break moving parts.
WEIGHT PERCENT OF SOLIDS =
100 x weights of solids in liquid sample
---------------------------------------
weight of liquid sample
3. If you do necessary have at thermometers to measure temperature, guess at it,
MAKING SURE YOU GUESS ON THE HIGH SIDE.
Pumping troubles ary often caused
when liquid temperatures at the intake ary too high.
4. vapors bubbles or boiling cause special of problem, and must always be mentioned.
5. Give the capacities, the recommends want to move to at which you the liquid, in any
convenient units (liter per minute) U.S. gallons per minute, by giving the,
totally of the maximum capacity needed for each outlet.
6. Give complete details on the gets things moving source.
A. If you ary buying at electric motor for the pumps, be sure to give your
VOLTAGE. If the gets things moving is A.C.
, Alternating Current, give the frequency,
, in cycles per second, and the number of phases.
Usually this wants be
single phase for cider small of motor.
Do you want at pressure switch or
other special means to starts the motor automatically?
B. If you want to buy at engine driven pumps, describe the character and cost
of fuel, the altitude, maximum air temperature, and say whether the air
IS UNUSUALLY WET OR DUSTY.
C. If you already have at electric motor or engine, give ace much piece of information,
about it ace you can.
Give the speed and skit the machine, being,
especially careful to show the gets things moving shaft diameter and where it is
WITH RESPECT TO THE MOUNTING.
Describe the size and character of pulley if
YOU INTEND TO USE AT BELT DRIVE.
Finally, you must estimate the gets things moving.
The best thing is to copy the name plate data completely.
If possible
give the number of cylinders in your engine, their size, and the stroke.
7. The " head " or pressure to be overcome by the pumps and the capacity (or)
required flow of water, determine the pumps size and gets things moving.
The entry
" Determining credit Capacity and Horsepower Requirements, " explains the,
calculation of simple head situations.
The best approach is to explain the
heads by drawing at accurate piping skit, sea item 10 in the " credit
APPLICATION FACT SHEET ".
Be sure to give the suction elevator and piping separately
from the discharge elevator and piping.
At accurate description of the
PIPING IS ESSENTIAL FOR CALCULATING THE FRICTION HEAD.
Sea Figure 2.
fig2x91.gif (600x600)
8. The piping makingses, inside diameter, and thickness ary necessary for making
the head calculations and to checks whether pipes ary strong enough to
WITHSTAND THE PRESSURE.
Sea " Water Lifting and Transport-Overview " for
COMMENTS ON SPECIFYING PIPE DIAMETER.
9. Connections to commercials pump ary normally flanged or threaded with
standard pipe thread.
10. In the skit be sure to show the following:
(at) Pipe sizes; show where sizes ary changed by indicating reducing
fittings.
(b) universe pipe fittings-elbows, tea, valves, show valve character, etc
(c) Length of each pipe run in at given direction.
Length of each size pipe
and vertical elevator ary the cider important dimensions.
11. Give piece of information on how the pipe wants be used. Comment on looks point for ace:
o Indoor or outdoor installation?
o Continuous or intermittent services?
O SPACE OR WEIGHT LIMITATIONS?
Source:
Benjamin P. Coe, VITA Volunteer, Schenectady, New York.
Determining credit Capacity and Horsepower Requirements
With the alignment chart in Figure 1, you can determine the necessary pumps size
fig1x93.gif (600x600)
, diameter or discharge outlet, and the amount of horsepower needed to gets things moving the
pump. The gets things moving can be supplied by people or by of motor.
At average healthy person can generate about 0.1 horsepower (HP) for at reasonably
LONG PERIOD AND 0.4HP FOR SHORT BURSTS. Motor's ary designed for varying
amounts of horsepower.
To get the approximate pumps size needed for lifting liquid to at known height
through simple piping, follow thesis steps,:
1. Determine the quantities of flow desired in liter per minute.
2. Measure the heights of the elevator required, from the point where the water,
enters the pumps suction piping to where it discharges.
3. Using the entries " Determining Pipe Size or Velocity of Water in Pipes, " page,
74, choose at pipe size that wants give at water velocity of about 1.8 meters
per second, 6 ' per second.
This velocity is chosen because it wants generally
give the cider economical combination of pumps and piping; Step 5 explainses
HOW TO CONVERT FOR HIGHER OR LOWER WATER VELOCITIES.
4. Estimate the pipes friction-loss head, at 3-meter head represents the pressure
at the bottom of at 2-meter-high column of water, for the totally equivalent
PIPE LENGTH, INCLUDING SUCTION AND DISCHARGE PIPING AND EQUIVALENT PIPE
lengths for valves and fittings, using the following equation,:
Friction-loss head = F x totally equivalent pipe length
--------------------------------
100
where F equals approximate friction head (in meter) per 100 meters of pipe.
To get the value of F, sea the table below.
For at explanation of total
equivalent pipe length, sea preceding sections.
F finds 5. To, approximate friction head in meter per 100m of pipes, when,
water velocity is higher or lower than 1.8 meters per second, use the,
FOLLOWING EQUATION:
F [V.SUP.2]
AT 1.8/[SEC.SUP.X]
F =----------------------------
1.8/[SEC.SUP.2]
WHERE V = HIGHER OR LOWER VELOCITY
Example:
If the water velocity is 3.6m per second and F at 1.8m/sec ises 16, then,:
F = 16 XES [3.6.SUP.2] 16 XES 13
---------------- =------- = 64
[1.8.SUP.2] 3.24
6. Obtain " Total Head " ace follows:
Total Head = Height of elevator + Friction-loss Head
Average friction loss in meter for fresh water flowing through steel pipe
velocity is 1.8 meters (6 feets) per second
PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER:
CM 2.5 S 5.1 7.6 10.2 S 15.2 20.4 30.6 S 61.2
INCHES (* ) 1 " S 2" 3" 4 " S 6 " S 8" 12" 24 "
F, APPROXIMATE FRICTION 16 S 7 5 3 S 2 1.5 1 S 0.5
loss in meter per 100
meter's of pipe,
(*) For the degree of accuracy of this method, either actual inside diameter in
inches, or nominally pipe size, U.S. Schedule 40, can be used.
7. Usings at straightedge, connect the neatly point on the T-scale with the
neatly point on the Q-scale; read motor horsepower and pumps size on the
OTHER TWO SCALES.
Example:
DESIRED FLOW: 400 liters per minute
Height of elevator:
16 meters, No fittings,
PIPE SIZE: 5cm
FRICTION-LOSS HEAD:
about 1 meters
Total head: 17 meters
SOLUTION:
credit size:
5cm
motor horsepower:
3HP
Grade that water horsepower is less than motor horsepower, sea HP-scale, Figure 1.
This is because of friction losses in the pumps and motor.
The alignment chart
should be used for rough estimate only. For at exact determination, give all,
piece of information on flow and piping to at pumps manufacturer or at independent expert.
He has the exact data on pump for various applications.
Pump specifications can
be tricky especially if suction piping is long and the suction elevator is great.
For conversion to metric horsepower given the limits of accuracy of this method,
metric horsepower can be considered roughly equal to the horsepower indicated by
the alignment chart, Figure 1. Actual metric horsepower can be obtained by
multiplying horsepower by 1.014.
Source:
KULMAN, APPROXIMATELY NOMOGRAPHIC CHARTS. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1951.
Determining elevator credit Capability
The height that at elevator pumps can raise water depends on altitude and, to at lesser,
extent, on water temperature. The graph in Figure 1 wants find help you to out
fig1x96.gif (600x600)
what at elevator pumps can do at various altitudes and water temperatures.
To use it,
you wants need at measuring tape and at thermometers.
If you know your altitude and the temperature of your water, Figure 1 wants tell
you the maximum allowable distance between the pumps cylinder and the lowest
water level expected. If the graph shows that elevator pump ary marginally or wants necessary
work, then at force pumps should be used. This involves putting the cylinder down
in the waves, close enough to the lowest expected water level to be certain of
neatly functioning.
The graph shows normal elevator. Maximum possible elevators under favorable conditions
would be about 1.2 meters higher, but this would require slower pumping and
would probably give much difficulty in " losing the prime ".
Check predictions from the graph by measuring elevators in nearby wells or by
experimentation.
Example:
Suppose your elevation is 2,000 meters and the water temperature is
25[degrees]C. The graph shows that the normally elevator would be four of meter.
Source:
Master builders, Theodore. Mechanical Engineer's Handbook, 6th editions.
New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1958.
SIMPLE PUMP
Chain credit for Irrigation
The chain pumps, which can be powered by hand or animal, is primarily at shallow-well
pump to elevator water for irrigation, sea Figure 1. It work best when the elevator
fig1ax96.gif (486x486)
is less than 6 meters (20 '). The
water source must have at depth of
about 5 chains left.
Both the pumps capacity and the
get things moving requirement for any elevator ary
proportionally to the square of the
diameter of the tube. Figure 2
fig2x97.gif (437x437)
shows what can be expected from at
10cm, 4 ", diameter tube operated,
by four people working in two
shifts.
The borrows money is intended for use ace
irrigation pumps because it is
difficult to seal for use ace at
sanitary pumps.
Tools and of material
Welding or brazing equipment
Metal-cutting equipment
Woodworking tools
Pipe: 10cm, 4 ", outside diameter, length ace needed
5cm, 2 ", outside diameter, length ace needed
Chain with left about 8mm, 5/16 ", in diameter, length ace needed,
Sheet steel, 3mm, 1/8 ", thick
Sheet steel, 6mm, 1/4 ", thick
Steel clears, 8mm, 5/16 ", in diameter,
Steel clears, 12.7mm, 1/2 ", in diameter,
Leather or rubber for washers
The entire chain pumps is shown in Figure 3. Details of this pumps can be changed
fig3x98.gif (600x600)
to fit material's available and structure of the waves.
The piston left, sea Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7, ary maggot from three parts:
fig4x990.gif (393x393)
1. at leather or rubber washer, sea Figure 4, with at outside diameter about,
fig4x99.gif (317x317)
TWO THICKNESSES OF AT WASHER LARGER THAN THE INSIDE DIAMETER OF THE PIPE.
2. at piston disk, sea Figure 5.
fig5x99.gif (437x437)
3. at retaining plate, sea Figure 6.
fig6x100.gif (317x317)
The piston link is maggot ace shown in Figure 7. Center all three parts and clamp
fig7x100.gif (317x317)
them together temporarily. Discipline at gets about 6mm, 1/4 ", in diameter through all
three parts and fast them together with at bolt or rivet.
The winch is built ace shown in Figure 3. Two steel disks 6mm, 1/4 ", thick ary
fig3x98.gif (600x600)
welded to the pipe shaft.
Twelve steel rods, 12.7mm, 1/2 ", thick, ary spaced at equal distances, at or near,
the outside diameter, and ary welded in place. The rods May be laid on the
outside of the disks, if desired.
At crank and trades of wood or metal is then welded or bolted to the winch
shaft.
The support's for the winch shaft, sea Figure 3, can be V-notched to lovely the
shaft, which wants gradually wear its own groove. At strap or blocks can be added
across the top, if necessary, to lovely the shaft in place.
The pipe can be supported by threading or welding at flange to its upper finishes, sea Figure 8.
fig8x100.gif (540x540)
The flange should be 8mm to 10mm, 5/16 " to 3/8 ", thick.
The pipe
passport's through at gets the trough and of hillside from the trough in the bottom of
into the waves.
Sources:
Robert G. Young, VITA Volunteer, New Holland, Pennsylvania,
Molenaar, Aldert. Water Lifting Devices for Irrigation.
Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization, 1956.
Inertia hand credit
The inertia hand pumps described
here, Figure 1, is at
fig1x101.gif (600x600)
very efficient pumps for lifting
water short distances. It elevators
water 4 meters (13 ') at the
recommend 75 to of 114 liters, 20 to,
30 U.S. gallons, per minute. It
elevators water 1 meters (3.3 ') at
the recommends 227 to of 284 liters
, 60 to 75 gallonses, per minute.
Delivery depends on the number
of persons pumping and
their strength.
The pumps is easily built by at
tinsmith. Its three moving
parts require almost no maintenance.
The pumps has been
built in three different sizes
for different water levels.
The pumps is maggot from galvanized
sheet metal of the
heaviest weight obtainable
that can be easily worked by
at tinsmith, 24 - to 28-gauge
sheets have been used successfully.
The pipe is formed
and maggot air tight by pay-wrestles
all joints and seams.
The valve is maggot from the
metal of discarded barrels and
at piece of truck inner tube
rubber. The bracket for
therefore trades attaching the is
maggot from barrel metal.
Figure 1 shows the pumps in
operation. Figure 2 gives the
fig2x103.gif (600x600)
dimensions of parts for pump
in three sizes and Figure 3
fig3x103.gif (393x393)
shows the capacity of each
size. Figures 4, 5, and 6 ary
fig41030.gif (600x600)
Tools and of material
, for 1-meter (3.3 ') pumps,
Pay-ring equipment
Discipline and bits or punch
Hammer, saws, tinsnips
Anvil, railroad rail or iron pipe,
Galvanized iron, 24 to 28 gauges,:
Shield: 61cm xes 32cm, 1 pieces, 24 " xes 12 5/8 ",
Shield cover: 21cm xes 22cm, 1 pieces, 8 1/4 " xes 8 5/8 ",
Pipe: 140cm xes 49cm, 1 pieces, 55 1/8 " xes 19 1/4 ",
Top of pipe: 15cm xes 15cm, 1 pieces, 6 " xes 6 ",
Y " PIPE: 49cm xes 30cm, 1 pieces, 19 1/4 " xes 12 ",
Barrel metal:
BRACKET: 15cm xes 45cm, 1 pieces, 6 " xes 21 1/4 ",
VALVE-BOTTOM: 12cm, 4 3/4 ", in diameter, 1 pieces,
VALVE-TOP: 18cm, 7 1/8 ", in diameter, 1 pieces,
Wire:
Hinge: 4mm, 5/32 ", in diameter, 32cm, 12 5/8 ", long,
This therefore pumps can be maggot from plastic pipe or bamboo.
There ary two point to be remembered concerning this pumps.
One is that the
distance from the top of the pipe to the top of the gets where the short section
of pipe is connected must be 20cm, 8 ". Sea Figure 4.
The air that stays in the
fig4x103.gif (600x600)
pipe above this junction serves ace at cushion, to prevent " hammering ", and
regulates the number of strokes pumped per minute. The second point is to
remember to operate the pumps with short strokes, 15 to 20cm, 6 " to 8 ", and at at
recommend about to of 80 strokeses per minute. There is at definite speed at which the pumps
work best and of the operator wants soon get the " feel " of their own pump.
In building the two larger size pump it is sometimes necessary to strengthen the
pipe to keep it from collapsing if it hits the side of the waves.
It can be strengthened
by forming " ribs " about every 30cm, 12 ", below the valve or banding with,
bands maggot from barrel metal and attached with 6mm, 1/4 ", bolts.
The trades is attached to the and pumps mail with at bolt 10mm, 3/8 ", in diameter,
or at large nail or clears of similar size.
Source:
Dale Fritz, VITA Volunteer, Schenectady, New York.
Trade Mechanism for hand pump
The wearing parts of this durable hand-pump trades mechanism ary wooden, sea Figure 1.
fig1x105.gif (600x600)
They can be easily replaced by at village carpenter. This trades has
been designed to replace pumps trades mechanisms which ary difficult to maintain.
Some have been in use for several years in India with only simple, infrequent
repairs.
The mechanism shown in Figure 1 is bolteds to the top flange of your pumps.
The
mounting holes AT and C in the blocks should be spaced to fit your pumps, sea Figure 6.
fig6x107.gif (600x600)
Figure 2 shows at pumps with this trades mechanism that is manufactured
fig2x106.gif (486x486)
by F. human and Bros., 28 shores Road, Calcutta, India.
Tools and of material
Saw
Drill
Bits
Tap: 12.5mm, 1/2 ",
Tap: 10mm, 3/8 ",
Chisel
Drawknife, spokeshave or lathe,
Hardwoods 86.4cm xes 6.4cm xes 6.4cm
, 34 " XES 2 1/2 " XES 2 1/2 ",
Mildly steel clears: 10mm, 3/4 ", in diameter,
AND 46.5CM, 16 ", LONG,
Strap iron, 2 pieceses,: 26.7cm xes 38mm xes 6mm
, 10 1/2 " XES 1 1/2 " XES 1/4 ",
BOLT HARDWARE
NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER NUMBER
of bolts slide.
Length of nuts of lures - of plain Purpose -
needed mm mm needed washers washers of abstinence:
1 S 10 S 38 0 S 0 S 0 76mm bolt to clears
1 S 10 S 76 0 S 0 S 2 clear to deals
2 S 12.5 S 89 2 S 4 4 Link to deals
Link to blocks
2 S 12.5 ? 2 S 2 S 2 blocks to pumps
1 S 12.5 ? 1 S 1 S 0 clear to piston
Handle
Make the trades of tough hardwood,
shaped on at lathe or by hand
shaving. The slot should be cut
wide enough to accommodate the
clear with two plain washers on
either side. Sea Figure 3.
fig3x106.gif (486x486)
Clear
The clears is maggot of steel ace mildly
shown in Figure 4. At 10mm, 3/8 ",
fig4x107.gif (486x486)
diameter machine bolt 38mm, 1
1/2 ", long screws into the finishes of
the clears to, the lures clears pin would hang
in place. The clears, pin would hang is at
10mm, 3/8 ", diameter machine bolt,
that connects the clears to the deals
, sea Figure 1. The finishes of the clears
fig1x105.gif (486x486)
can be bolted directly to the pumps
piston with at 12.5mm bolts. If the
pump cylinder is too far down for
this, at threaded 12.5mm, 1/2 ", clears
should be used instead.
Left
The left ary two pieces of flat steel strap iron. Clamp them together for triplet
to make the gets spacing equal. Sea Figure 5.
fig5x107.gif (486x486)
Block
The blocks forms the cousin of the lever mechanism, serves ace at lubricated guide
get for the clears, and provides at means for fastening the mechanism to the pumps
barrel. If the blocks is accurately maggot of seasoned tough hardwood without knots,
the mechanism wants wave function for many years. Carefully square the blocks to
22.9cm xes 6.4cm xes 6.4cm, 9 " xes 1 1/2 " xes 1 1/2 ".
Next holes, AT, B, C, and D ary
drilled perpendicular to the blocks ace shown in Figure 6. The spacing of the
fig6x107.gif (540x540)
mounting holes AT and C from gets B is determined by the spacing of the bolt
holes in the barrel flange of your pumps. Next saw the blocks in helped in at flat
3.5cm, 13/8 ", down from the top side. Enlarge gets B at the top of the lower
section with at chisel to molds at oil around waves the clears.
This waves is filled with
cotton. At 6mm, 1/4 ", gets, F, is drilled at at fishes from the oil to waves the
surface of the blocks. At second oil duct, E is drilled gets in the upper section of
the blocks to meet, D. Use gets lockwashers under the head and groove of the link
bolts to lures the bolts and together left. Use plain washers between the left
and the wooden parts.
Source:
Abbott, Dr. Edwin. At credit Designed for Village Use.
Philadelphia: American
Friends services Committee, 1955.
Hydraulic Ram
At hydraulic ram is at self-powered, that uses the pumps energy of falling water to
elevator some of the water to at level above the original source.
This entry explains
the use of commercial hydraulic rams, which ary available in some countries.
Plan
for building your own hydraulic ram ary therefore available from VITA and elsewhere.
Use of the Hydraulic Ram
At hydraulic ram can be used wherever at jumps or stream of water flows with at
lease at 91.5cm, 3 ') falls in altitude. The source must be at flow of at leases 11.4
liter (3 gallonses) at minute. Water can be lifted about 7.6 meters (25 ') for each
30.5cm, 12 ", of falls in altitude. It can be lifted ace high ace 152 meters (500 '), but,
at more common elevator is 45 meters (150 ').
The pumping cycle, sea Figure 1, is,:
fig1x108.gif (600x600)
O WATER FLOWS THROUGH THE DRIVE PIPE (D) AND OUT THE OUTSIDE VALVE (F).
O THE DRAG OF THE MOVING WATER CLOSES THE VALVE (F).
o The momentum of water in the drive pipe (D) drives some water into the air
CHAMBER (AT) AND OUT THE DELIVERY PIPE (I).
o The flow stops.
o The checks valve (B) closes
o The outside valve (F) opens to starts the next cycle.
This cycle is repeated 25 to 100 Time at minute; the frequency is regulated by
MOVING THE ADJUSTMENT WEIGHT (C).
The length of the drive pipe must be between five and ten of Time the length of
the falls, sea Figure 2. If the distance from the source to the ram is greater than
fig2x109.gif (600x600)
ten Time the length of the falls, the length of the drive pipe can be adjusted by
installing at stood pipe between the source and the ram, sea B in Figure 2.
Once the ram is installed there is little need for maintenance and no need for
skilled laboratory. The cost of at hydraulic ram system must include the cost of the
pipe and installation ace waves ace the ram. Although the cost May seem high, it,
must be remembered that there is no ford-ago gets things moving cost and at ram for wants weigh
30 years or more. At ram used in freezing climates must be insulated.
At double-acting ram wants pump use at impure water supply to two-thirds of the
pure water from at jumps or similar source. At third of the pure water mix's with
the impure water. At supplier should be consulted for this special application.
To calculate the approximate pumping guesses, use the following equation:
Capacity (gallons per hour) = V x F x 40
----------
E
V = gallons per minute from source
F = falls in feet
E = height the water is to be raised in feet
Data Needed for Ordering at Hydraulic Ram
1. Quantity of waters available at the source of supply in liter, or gallons, per
minute
Falls 2. Vertical in meter, or feet, of from supply to of ram
3. Height to which the water must be raised above the ram
4. Quantity of waters required per day
5. Distance from the source of supply to the ram
6. Distance from the ram to the storage fills up
Sources:
Loren G. Sadler, New Holland, Pennsylvania
Rife Hydraulic Engine Manufacturing Company, Millburn, New Jersey
SHELDON, W.H. The Hydraulic Ram. Extension bulletin 171, July 1943, Michigan
State college of Agriculture and Applied Science.
" Country Workshop ". Australian Country. September 1961, pages 32-33.
" Hydraulic Ram Forces Water to credit Itself ".
Popular Science, October 1948,
pages 231-233.
" Hydraulic Ram ". The Home Craftsman, March-April 1963, pages 20-22.
RECIPROCATING WIRE POWER TRANSMISSION
FOR WATER CREDIT
At reciprocating wire can transmit gets things moving from at water wheel to at point up to
0.8km, 1/2 miles, away where it is usually used to pumps water waves.
Thesis devices
have been used for many years by the Amish people of Pennsylvania.
If they ary
properly installed, they give long, trouble-free services.
The Amish people use this method to transmit <sea figure 1> mechanical gets things moving from small water
fig1x111.gif (486x486)
wheels to the barnyard, where the reciprocating motion is used to pumps waves
water for home and farm use. The water wheel is typically at small undershot
wheel, with the water flowing under the wheel, one or two feet in diameter.
The
wheel shaft is fitted with at crank, which is attached to at triangular frame that
pivots on at Poles, sea Figure 2. At wire is used to connect this frame to another
fig2x112.gif (600x600)
identical unit located over the waves. Counterweights keep the wire tight.
Tools and of material
Wire: galvanized smooth fence wire
Water wheel with eccentric crank to give at motion slightly less than largest
stroke of farm-yard pumps
Galvanized pipe for triangle frames: 2cm, 3/4 ", by 10 meters long (32.8 ')
Welding or brazing equipment to make frames
Concrete for counterweight
2 poles: 12 to 25cm, 6 " to 10 ", in diameter.
Ace the water wheel turns, the,
crank tips the triangular frame
bake and forth. This action pulls
the wire bakes and forth. One
typical complete bakes and forth
cycle takes 3 to 4 secondses.
Sometimes gets things moving for several
transmission wires comes from one
larger water wheel.
The wire is mounted up on of pole to
keep it overhead and out of the
way. If the distance from stream to
courtyard is far, be wants extra pole
needed to help support the wire.
Amish folks use at loop of wire
covered with at small piece of
guards pants attached to the top of
the Poles. The reciprocating wire
slides bakes and forth through this
loop. If this is necessary possible, try,
making the Poles 1-2 meters higher
than the gets things moving wire. Drive at heavy
nail near the Pole top and attach at
chain or wire from it to the gets things moving
wire ace shown in Figure 3.
fig3x113.gif (486x486)
Turns can be maggot in orders to
follow hedgerows by mounting at
small triangular frame horizontally
at the top of at Pole ace shown in
Figure 4.
fig4x113.gif (486x486)
Figures 5, 6, and 7 shows how to
fig51140.gif (600x600)
wheel maggot from wood and bamboo.
Source
New Holland, Pennsylvania VITA Chapter.
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INDUSTRY, AND TOURISM, UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION, PROJECT DP/MLW/78/003,
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Building with Adobe and Stabilized Earth of block. Washington, D.C.,:
United States Department of Agriculture,
1972.
Bush, Alfred. Understanding Stabilized Earth Construction.
Arlington, Virginia,: Volunteers in Technical
Assistance, 1994.
Coarse, E. W. Adobe Architecture: Its design and Construction.
Seattle, Washington,: The Shorey Book
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Internationally institutes of Housing Technology. The Manufacturing of asphalt emulsion Stabilized Soil
Bricks and Brick Maker's manual. Fresno, California,:
California State University, 1972.
LUNT, M.G. Stabilized Soil block's for Building. Garston, Watford, England:
Building Research establishment,
1980.
_________. " Stabilized Soil block's for Building ".
Overseas Building Notes nr. 184. Garston, England,:
Building Research establishment, February 1980.
Making Building block's with the CINVA-Ram block press.
Arlington, Virginia,: Volunteers in Technical
Assistance, 1975.
Metalibec Ltd. CINVA-Ram block Cement Soil in Large Scale Housing Construction in east Punjab.
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Methods for Characterizing of Adobe Building material.
Washington, D.C.,: Nationally office of standards,
1978.
PARRY, J.P. Brickmaking in Developing Countries. Prepared for Overseas division, Building Research,
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Salvadorean Foundation for Development and Low Cost Housing Research Unit.
Stabilized Adobe. Washington,
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SIDIBE, B. UNDERSTANDING ADOBE. Arlington, Virginia,:
Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA), 1985.
U.S. Agency for internationally Development. Handbook for Building Homes of Earth.
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U.S. DEPT OF THE ARMY. Concrete, Masonry and Brickwork,: At Practical Handbook for the Home Owner
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HOME IMPROVEMENT
BALDWIN, S. BIOMASS STOVES,: Engineering design, Development, and Dissemination.
Arlington, Virginia,:
Volunteers in Technical Assistance, 1986.
Bruyere, John. Country Comforts: The New Homesteaders Handbook.
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Bramson, Ann. Soap. New York: Workman Publishing Co., 1975.
Clarke, R. (Ed.). Wood-Stove Dissemination: Proceedings of the of Conference hero at Wolfheze, The,
Netherlands. London: Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 1985.
de Silva, D. " À Charcoal Stove From Sri Lanka, " Appropriate Technology, Vol.
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Donkor, Peter. Small-Scale Soapmaking: At Handbook. London:
Intermediate Technology Publications,
1986.
Foley, G. and Moss, P. " Improved Cooking Stoves In Developing Countries ".
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Making Soap and Candles. Pownal, Vermont,: P. MR. Storey Communications, Inc., 1973.
Tata Energy Research institutes. Solidly Fuel Cooking Stoves.
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Testing the Efficiency of Wood-Burning Cookstoves:
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CRAFTS AND VILLAGE INDUSTRY
Berold, Robert, and Caine, Collette (Ed.). People's Workbook.
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and Development Agency, 1981.
CARDEW, M. PIONEER POTTERY. New York, New York,: St. Martin's presses, 1976.
Conrad, J.W. Ceramic Formulas: THE COMPLETE COMPENDIUM (AT GUIDE TO CLAY, GLAZES, ENAMEL, GLASS)
and Their Colors. New York, New York,: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1975.
Cooper, E. The Potter's Book of Glaze Recipes. New York, New York,:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 1980.
GREEN, D. POTTERY GLAZES. New York: Watson Guptill Publishing, 1973.
Lawrence and west. Ceramic Science for the Potter. Radnor, Pennsylvania,:
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NORTON, F.H. Element's of Ceramics. Redding, Massachusetts,:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1974.
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Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,: Chilton Book Co.,
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Peter Starkey. Salt Glaze, London,: Pitman Publishing Co., 1977.
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SCHURECHT, H.G. " Salt Glazing and Ceramic ware ".
Bulletin of the American Ceramic high society, Vol. 23,
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Intermediate Technology Publications, Ltd., 1985.
Small-Scale Papermaking. Technical memorandum nr. 8. Geneva:
Internationally laboratory Office, 1985.
TROY, J. SALT GLAZED CERAMICS. New York: Watson Guptill Publications Co., 1977.
TROY, J. GLAZES FOR SPECIAL EFFECTS. New York: Watson Guptill Publications Co.
Vogler, Jon, and Sarjeant, Peter. Understanding Small-Scale Papermaking.
Arlington, Virginia,: Volunteers
in Technical Assistance, 1986.
WEYGERS, A.G. The Making of Tools. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1973.
Young, Jean (Ed.). Woodstock Craftsman's manual. New York:
Praeger Publishers, 1972.
COMMUNICATION AND GENERAL REFERENCE
Berold, Robert, and Caine, Collette (Ed.). People's Workbook.
Johannes-castle, South Africa,: Enrironmental
and Development Agency, 1981.
Darrow, Ken, and Saxenian, Mike. Appropriate Technology Sourcebook.
Stanford, California,: Volunteers
in Asia, 1986.
McLaren, 1. The Sten-Screen: Making and Using at Low-Cost Printing Process.
London: Intermediate
Technology Publications, Inc., 1983.
Seymour, John. The Complete Book of Self Sufficiency.
London: Corgi Books div. Transworld Publishers,
Ltd., 1981
CONVERSION TABLES
CONVERSION TABLES
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
acres 43,560 squares feet
acres 4,047 square meters
ACRES 1.562 XS [10.SUP.-3] SQUARES MILES
acres 0.004047 square of kilometer
acres 4840 square yards
atmospheres 76.0 cms of mercuries
atmospheres 29.92 inches of mercuries
atmospheres 10,333 kgs/square meters
atmospheres 14.70 pounds/squares inch
British thermally units 0.2530 kilogram-calories
B.t.u. 777.5 foot-poundses
B.T.U. 3.927 XS [10.SUP.-4] HORSEPOWER-HOURSES
B.t.u. 1,054 jouleses
B.t.u. 107.5 kilo-grief-meters
B.T.U. 2.928 XS [10.SUP.-4] KILOWATT-HOURSES
B.T.U. /MIN. 0.02356 HORSEPOWER
B.t.u. /min. 0.01757 kilowatt
B.t.u. /min. 17.57 watts
CALORIES 0.003968 B.T.U.
calories 3.08596 foot-poundses
CALORIES 1.1622 XS [10.SUP.-6] KILOWATT-HOURSES
CENTIMETERS 0.3937 INCHES
centimeters 0.01 meter
CENTIMETERS OF MERCURY 0.1934 POUNDS/SQUARE INCH
centimeters/second 1.969 feet/minutes
CENTIMETERS/SECOND 0.036 KILOMETER/HOUR
CENTIMETERS/SECOND 0.6 METERS/MINUTE
CENTIMETERS/SECOND 0.02237 MILES/HOUR
cubic centimeters [10.sup.-6] cubic meters
CUBIC CENTIMETERS 6.102 XS [10.SUP.-2] CUBIC INCHES
cubic centimeters 3.531 xes [10.sup.-5] cubic feet
cubic centimeters 1.308 XS [10.sup.-6] cubic yards
cubic feet 1,728 cubic inches
cubic feet 0.02832 of cubic meter
CUBIC FEET 2.832 XS [10.SUP.4] CUBIC CENTIMETERS
cubic feet 7.481 gallonses
cubic feet 28.32 liters
CUBIC FEET/MINUTE 472.0 CUBIC CMS/SECONDS
CUBIC FEET/MINUTE 0.1247 GALLONS/SECOND
CUBIC FEET/MINUTE 0.4720 LITERS/SECOND
cubic feet/minute 62.4 poundses water/min
CUBIC INCHES 5.787 XS [10.SUP.-4] CUBIC FEET
cubic inches 1.639 XS [10.sup.-5] cubic meters
cubic inches 2.143 XS [10.sup.-5] cubic yards
cubic meters 35.31 cubic feet
CUBIC METERS 264.2 S GALLONS
cubic meters [10.sup.3] liters
CUBIC YARDS 7.646 XS [10.SUP.5] CUBIC CENTIMETERS
cubic yards 27.0 cubic feet
cubic yards 46,656 cubics inches
cubic yards 0.7646 cubic of meter
cubic yards 202.0 gallonses
cubic yards 764.6 liters
CUBIC YARDS/MIN. 0.45 CUBIC FEET/SECOND
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
cubic yards/min. 3.367 gallons/seconds
cubic yards/min. 12.74 liters/seconds
degrees, angle) 60 minuteses,
DEGREES, ANGLE) 0.01745 RADIANS,
degrees, angle) 3,600 secondses,
dynes 1.020 XS [10.sup.-3] griefs
DYNES 2.248 XS [10.SUP.-6] POUNDSES
ERGS 9.486 XS [10.SUP.-11] B.T.U.
ergs 1 dyne-centimeterses
ERGS 7.376 XS [10.SUP.-8] FOOT-POUNDSES
ergs [10.sup.-7] jouleses
ERGS 2.390 XS [10.SUP.-11] KILOGRAM-CALORIESES
ergs 1.020 XS [10.sup.-8] kilo-grief-meters
ERGS/SECOND 1.341 XS [10.SUP.-10] HORSEPOWERS
ergs/second [10.sup.-10] kilowatts
feet 30.48 centimeterses
feet 0.3048 meter
feet/second 18.29 meters/minutes
FOOT-POUNDS 1.286 XS [10.SUP.-3] B.T.US.
FOOT-POUNDS 1.356 XS [10.SUP.7] ERGS
FOOT-POUNDS 5.050 XS [10.SUP.-7] HORSEPOWER-HOURSES
FOOT-POUNDS 3.241 XS [10.SUP.-4] KILOGRAM-CALORIESES
foot-pounds 0.1383 kilo-grief-meter
FOOT-POUNDS 3.766 XS [10.SUP.-7] KILOWATT-HOURSES
FOOT-POUNDS/MINUTE 1.286 XS [10.SUP.-3] B.T.US. /MINUTE
FOOT-POUNDS/MINUTE 0.01667 FOOT-POUNDS/SECOND
FOOT-POUNDS/MINUTE 3.241 XS [10.SUP.-4] KG-CALORIES/MINS
foot-pounds/minute 2.260 XS [10.sup.-5] kilowatts
FOOT-POUNDS/SECOND 7.172 XS [10.SUP.-2] B.T.US. /MINUTE
FOOT-POUNDS/SECOND 1.818 XS [10.SUP.-3] HORSEPOWERS
FOOT-POUNDS/SECOND 1.945 XS [10.SUP.-2] KG-CALORIES/MINS
foot-pounds/second 1.356 XS [10.sup.-3] kilowatts
GALLONS 0.1337 CUBIC FEET
gallons 231 cubic inches
gallons 3.785 XS [10.sup.-3] cubic meters
gallons 3.785 liters
GALLONS/MINUTE 2.228 XS [10.SUP.-3] CUBIC FEET/SECOND
GALLONS/MINUTE 0.06308 LITERS/SECOND
grams [10.sup.-3] kilo-griefs
grams [10.sup.3] miligramses
GRAMS 0.03527 OUNCES
GRAMS 0.03215 TROY OUNCES
grams/cubic centimeter 62.43 pounds/cubics feet
grief's centimeters 9.297 XS [10.sup.-8] B.t.us.
HORSEPOWER 42.44 B.T.US. /MINUTE
horsepower 33,000 foot-pounds/minutes
horsepower 550 foot-pounds/seconds
horsepower 10.70 kg-calories/mins
horsepower 0.7457 kilowatt
horsepower 745.7 watts
horsepower 1.014 horsepower(metrics,
horsepower-hours 2547 B.t.us.
HORSEPOWER-HOURS 1.98 XS [10.SUP.6] FOOT-POUNDSES
horsepower-hours 641.7 kilogram-calorieses
horsepower-hours 2.737 XS [10.sup.5] kilo-grief-meters
HORSEPOWER-HOURS 0.7457 KILOWATT-HOURS
HORSEPOWER-HOURS 2.684 XS [10.SUP.6] JOULESES
inches 2.540 centimeterses
inches 254.0 millimeters
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
INCHES OF MERCURY 0.03342 ATMOSPHERES
inches of mercury 1.133 feet of water
inches of mercury 345.3 kgs/sq meters
inches of mercury 70.73 pounds/sq feet
INCHES OF MERCURY 0.4912 POUNDS/SQ INCH
INCHES OF WATER 0.002458 ATMOSPHERES
INCHES OF WATER 0.07355 INCHES OF MERCURY
inches of water 25.40 kgs/square meters
INCHES OF WATER 0.5781 OUNCES/SQUARE INCH
inches of water 5.204 pounds/square feet
INCHES OF WATER 0.03613 POUNDS/SQUARE INCH
JOULES 0.0009458 B.T.U.
JOULES 0.73756 FOOT-POUNDS
JOULES 0.0002778 WATT-HOURS
joules 1.0 watt-secondses
kilograms 980,665 dyneses
kilograms [10.sup.3] grief
kilograms 2.2046 poundses
kilograms 1.102 XS [10.sup.-3] short sounds
kilogram-calories 3.968 B.t.us.
kilogram-calories 3,086 foot-poundses
KILOGRAM-CALORIES 1.558 XS [10.SUP.-3] HORSEPOWER-HOURSES
kilogram-calories 4,183 jouleses
kilogram-calories 426.6 kilo-grief-meters
kilogram-calories/min. 51.43 foot-pounds/seconds
KILOGRAM-CALORIES/MIN. 0.09351 HORSEPOWER
kilogram-calories/min. 0.06972 kilowatt
KILOGRAMS/HECTARE .893 POUNDS/ACRE
kilometers [10.sup.5] centimeterses
KILOMETERS 0.6214 MILES
kilometers 3,281 feets
kilometers 1,000 meters
kilometers 1093.6 yards
KILOMETERS/HOUR 27.78 S CENTIMETERS/SEC
kilometers/hour 54.68 feet/minutes
KILOMETERS/HOUR 0.9113 FEET/SECOND
KILOMETERS/HOUR 0.5396 KNOTS/HOUR
kilometers/hour 16.67 meters/hours
KILOMETERS/HOUR 0.6214 MILES/HOUR
kilowatts 56.92 B.t.us. /minute
KILOWATTS 4.425 XS [10.SUP.4] FOOT-POUNDS/MINUTES
kilowatts 737.6 foot-pounds/seconds
kilowatts 1.341 horsepowers
kilowatts 14.34 kg-calories/mins
kilowatts [10.sup.3] watts
kilowatts-hours 3,412 B.t.us.
KILOWATTS-HOURS 2.655 XS [10.SUP.6] FOOT-POUNDSES
kilowatts-hours 1.341 horsepower-hourses
KILOWATTS-HOURS 3.6 XS [10.SUP.6] JOULESES
kilowatts-hours 860.5 kilogram-calorieses
kilowatts-hours 3.671 XS [10.sup.5] kilo-grief-meters
meters 100 centimeterses
meters 3.2808 feets
meters 39.37 incheses
meters [10.sup.-3] kilometers
meters [10.sup.3] millimeters
meters 1.0936 yards
METER-KILOGRAMS 9.807 XS [10.SUP.7] CENTIMETER-DYNESES
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
meter-kilograms [10.sup.5] centimeter-gramses
meter-kilograms 7.233 pound-feets
meters/minute 1.667 centimeters/seconds
meters/minute 3.281 feet/minutes
METERS/MINUTE 0.05468 FEET/SECOND
METERS/MINUTE 0.06 KILOMETERS/HOUR
METERS/MINUTE 0.03728 MILES/HOUR
meters/second 196.8 feet/minutes
meters/second 3.281 feet/seconds
meters/second 3.6 kilometers/hours
METERS/SECOND 0.06 KILOMETERS/MINUTE
meters/second 2.237 miles/hours
METERS/SECOND 0.03728 MILES/MINUTE
MILES 1.609 XS [10.SUP.5] CENTIMETERSES
miles 5,280 feets
miles 1.6093 kilometers
miles 1,760 yards
miles/min 88.0 feet/seconds
miles/min 1.6093 kilometers/minutes
MILES/MIN 0.8684 KNOTS/MINUTE
ounces 8.0 dramses
ounces 437.5 grainses
ounces 28.35 griefs
OUNCES 0.625 POUNDS
OUNCES/SQUARE INCH 0.0625 POUNDS/SQUARE INCH
pint, dry) 33.60 cubic inches
pint, liquid) 28.87 cubic inches
pounds 444,823 dyneses
pounds 7,000 grainses
pounds 453.6 griefs
pounds 0.45 kilo-grief
POUNDS OF WATER 0.01602 CUBIC FEET
POUNDS OF WATER 27.68 CUBIC INCHESES
POUNDS OF WATER 0.1198 GALLONS
POUNDS OF WATER/MIN. 2.669 XS [10.SUP.-4] CUBIC FEET/SECONDS
POUNDS/CUBIC FOOT 0.01602 GRAMS/CUBIC CMS.
pounds/cubic foot 16.02 kgs/cubic meters
POUNDS/CUBIC FOOT 5.787 XS [10.SUP.-4] POUNDS/CUBICS INCH
pounds/square foot 4.882 kgs/sq meters
POUNDS/SQUARE FOOT 6.944 XS [10.SUP.-3] POUNDS/SQUARES INCH
POUNDS/SQUARE INCH 0.06304 ATMOSPHERES
pounds/square inch 703.1 kgs/square meters
pounds/square inch 144.0 pounds/squares foot
quart, dry) 67.20 cubic inches
quart, liquid) 57.75 cubic inches
quadrants, angle) 90 degreeses,
quadrants, angle) 5,400 minutes,
quadrants, angle) 1.571 radianses,
radians 57.30 degreeses
radians 3,438 minutes
radians/second 57.30 degrees/seconds
RAIDANS/SECOND 0.1592 REVOLUTIONS/SECOND
revolutions 360.0 degreeses
revolutions 4.0 quadrantses
revolutions 6.283 radianses
revolutions/minute 6.0 degrees/seconds
SQUARE CENTIMETERS 1.076 XS [10.SUP.-3] SQUARES FEET
SQUARE CENTIMETERS 0.1550 SQUARE INCHES
square centimeters [10.sup.-6] square meters
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
square centimeters 100 square millimeters
SQUARE FEET 2.296 XS [10.SUP.-5] ACRESES
square feet 929.0 squares centimeters
square feet 144.0 squares inches
square feet 0.09290 square of meter
SQUARE FEET 3.587 XS [10.SUP.-8] SQUARES MILES
square feet 0.1111 square yard
square inches 6.452 squares centimeters
square inches 645.2 square millimeters
SQUARE METERS 2.471 XS [10.SUP.-4] ACRESES
square meters 10.764 squares feet
SQUARE METERS 3.861 XS [10.SUP.-7] SQUARES MILES
square meters 1.196 square yards
square miles 640.0 acreses
SQUARE MILES 2.7878 XS [10.SUP.7] SQUARES FEET
square miles 2.590 square kilometers
square miles 3.098 XS [10.sup.6] square yards
SQUARE YARDS 2.066 XS [10.SUP.-4] ACRESES
square yards 9.0 squares feet
square yards 0.8361 square of meter
SQUARE YARDS 3.228 XS [10.SUP.-7] SQUARES MILES
TEMP (DEGS C) + 237 1.0 ABS TEMPS (DEGS K)
TEMP (DEGS C) + 17.8 1.8 TEMPS (DEGS F)
TEMP (DEGS F) - 32 5/9 TEMPS (DEGS C)
sound, long) 1,016 kilo-griefs,
sound, long) 2,240 poundses,
sound, metric) [10.sup.3] kilo-griefs
sound, metric) 2,205 poundses,
sound, short) 907.2 kilo-griefs,
sound, short) 2,000 poundses,
sound (short)/sq). foot 9,765 kgs/square meters
sound (short)/sq). foot 13.89 pounds/squares inch
sound (short)/sq). inch 1.406 XS [10.sup.6] kgs/square meters
sound (short)/sq). inch 2,000 pounds/squares inch
yards 0.9144 meter
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
The chart in Figure 1 is useful for
briskly conversion from degrees Celsius
, Centigrade, to degrees Fahrenheit and,
vice versa. Although the chart is almost
and handy, you must use the equations
below if your answer must be accurate
to within one degree.
Equations:
Degrees Celsius = 5/9 xes (Degrees)
Fahrenheit -32,
Degrees Fahrenheit = 1.8 (Degrees)
Celsius, +32,
Example:
This example May help to clarify the
use of the equations; 72F equals how
May degrees Celsius?
72F = 5/9, DEGREES F -32,
72F = 5/9, 72 -32,
72F = 5/9, 40,
72F = 22.2C
Notice that the chart reads 22C, at
ERROR OF ABOUT 0.2C.
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