7.1 Phase I: Production of printed information by postal survey respondents
7.2 Findings of Phase III: Regional overview of organisations sharing agricultural information in Uganda and Ghana
7.3 Phase II: Impact of printed information within RPAs
Organisations which have the provision of printed information as one of their objectives, are discussed here in more detail. The findings combine relevant findings from the postal survey and from the informal overview of organisations in Uganda and Ghana which were involved in sharing agricultural information. Further relevant findings relating to the impact of printed information among groups during the in-depth research in Uganda and Ghana are included.
Printed materials of some nature were produced by 60% of postal survey respondents. The data that follows refers to the 119 organisations from the postal survey who were producing printed information and provides details of various production factors.
The likelihood of producing printed materials increased with income. Over two thirds of GOs and NGOs responding to the postal survey produced printed materials and just over half of GDOs.
7.1.1 Targeting and distribution
Organisations were asked to indicate the kind of printed materials they produced and the results are shown in Table 17.
Teaching notes were more likely to be informal duplicated aids and notes for members or trainers than printed information for wide distribution. Newsletters and booklets would normally be for wider circulation and numerous examples were sent to the researcher. Many were in local languages. A variety of other materials were also mentioned with a frequency of less than five.12
12 Other materials mentioned with a frequency of less than 5 included: books, magazines, hand-outs, calendars, annual reports, videos, photocopies, research papers, Bible studies, brochures, embroidery patterns, accounting notes, puppets, flannelgraphs, alphabet charts.
Most organisations were producing just a few items of printed information each year, often in quite small quantities, to meet the needs of members, health workers and development workers with whom they were linked. The majority of respondents saw the production of printed materials as a small part of their work, taking either very little of their time (43%) or about a third of their time (37%). Some commented that they did not have enough staff to do more. However, 20% saw the production of printed materials as their main priority and a few organisations were producing very large quantities (over 10,000 copies) of materials.
TABLE 17 - Nature of printed materials produced by postal survey respondents
|
|
MATERIALS PRODUCED | |
|
Teaching notes |
63 |
(53%) |
|
Newsletters or newspapers |
58 |
(49%) |
|
Booklets |
46 |
(39%) |
|
Resource packs |
18 |
(15%) |
|
Teachers or trainers manuals |
6 |
(5%) |
|
Posters or flip charts |
5 |
(4%) |
|
Literacy primers and readers |
5 |
(4%) |
A silk screen duplicator demonstrated by MTEA staff in Iganga, Uganda.
7.1.2 Languages used to pass on information
Respondents were questioned about attitudes towards language usage and reading preferences with the following results. (Table 18)
TABLE 18 - Language preferences for reading materials from postal survey respondents
|
PEOPLE PREFER TO READ IN... |
|
|
|
their own local language |
27 |
(24%) |
|
the official language |
37 |
(33%) |
|
English (not the official language) |
7 |
(6%) |
|
both local and official language |
42 |
(37%) |
|
Total |
115 |
(100%) |
Missing data 4 cases
English was the official language for nearly a third of respondents. Further examination of the results, separated out respondents whose official language was not English and found that a significant number of these respondents (64%) commented that their target community preferred to read either in their local language or the official language or both, rather than in English. Only 6% of respondents indicated that their target community preferred information in English when this was not their official language.
Clear preferences are thus expressed for receiving information in either local or official languages. In addition to the language used, difficulties in understanding more complex language usage were also raised by respondents.
7.1.3 Potential for post-literacy materials
The shortages of follow-up reading materials for new literates is a real barrier to maintaining literacy (Gfeller, 1997; Walker, 1996; Friedman, 1960). A small number of the respondent organisations were working in adult literacy. However, though others did not have literacy as their main focus, their materials might well prove adaptable.
When questioned about their co-operation with literacy work, nearly half were aware of literacy programmes nearby and a quarter were already cooperating with them in making their materials available to the literacy programmes. However, a further quarter of respondents said that literacy programmes were not aware of their materials, though many (41%) agreed their material might well have considerable potential for use in literacy training and post-literacy work. This indicates the potential for co-operation between organisations producing post-literacy materials and those producing teaching materials about development issues. Such co-operation and networking might prove most beneficial when working within small language groups.
Only 14% of respondents were able to meet the demand for their printed materials. Nearly half (46%) of respondents said there was considerable interest in their materials but they lacked sufficient funds to produce larger quantities. Some (17%) felt that the inability of the target community to pay for their materials inhibited their ability to produce more printed information. Only 3% felt that poor quality limited the demand. These findings reveal that desire for locally produced materials far outweighs their actual appearance and quality (though this point of view is being expressed by the producers of the materials)
7.1.4 Priorities in producing printed materials
In over two thirds of organisations (71 %) there was group decision-making concerning the production of materials. In only 9% of situations did one person make all the decisions. Production was thus rarely explained by one enthusiast acting in isolation, though there may often be one enthusiastic writer backed by a team of like-minded people.
Most organisations (83%) produced materials for an audience wider than their own immediate membership and gratifyingly few felt their materials remained unknown. One third felt they lacked equipment and facilities and a quarter lacked funding to produce more materials (this is further explored in the next section).
Training in the production of printed materials came from several sources, though 21% commented they had received no training and 3% had no knowledge of alternative methods of production. Helpful training, usually through workshops, was received by less than a third (30%) of respondents, with most having learnt 'on the job' and 21% learning indirectly either from books on the subject or learning informally through visits to similar organisations (25%).
7.1.5 Copyright
Only 8% of respondents were unaware of the meaning of copyright. Nearly two-thirds (63%) were well aware of copyright laws, whilst another third (29%) were aware of copyright though did not always follow it. It should be noted that copyright restrictions do not extend to many countries, so few organisations would actually break the law by flouting copyright.
7.1.6 Available equipment and supplies
Respondents were asked for details about the kind of equipment they used for producing materials; equipment which they either own or simply have access to. (Table 19)
TABLE 19 - Access to printing facilities for postal survey respondents
|
AVAILABLE EQUIPMENT |
|
|
|
Typewriter |
75 |
(69%) |
|
Computer and printer |
73 |
(68%) |
|
Stencil duplicator |
47 |
(44%) |
|
Printing equipment |
24 |
(22%) |
|
Electronic scanner |
11 |
(10%) |
|
Silk-screen printing |
10 |
(9%) |
|
Total cases |
108 |
|
Missing data 11 cases
There was some overlap in the availability of equipment. 46% of organisations had access to both computers and typewriters, 23% had only computers, 21% had only a typewriter and 9% had neither.
A further 11 % mentioned they had use of a photocopier. The availability of printing equipment is more likely to reflect easy access to commercial printers than ownership. Few had access to electronic scanners, which can transform the use of traditional stencil duplicators with good quality reproductions and diagrams. Even fewer made use of silk-screen printers, a low cost method of printing involving easily made equipment.
The public library established by AEC
Organisations were asked about their access to supplies of the equipment necessary to enable them to produce materials. Nearly half (47%) commented that supplies and spare parts were not a problem, but the remaining half had various difficulties such as:
· spare parts difficult to find (26%)
· supplies such as paper, ink and stencils were often not available (19%)
· erratic electricity supplies a problem in production (21%)
· lack of funds to purchase necessary supplies (47%).
Other shortages mentioned by just a few organisations included lack of transport to buy supplies, lack of illustrations, lack of staff, lack of training and knowledge, and printing delayed through managerial problems at the printing press.
7.1.7 Design and layout
Though many people in the target community may be appreciative of any printed information, irrespective of design quality, it is apparent that most postal survey respondents were frustrated with their own limitations. They were prevented from producing better designed material due to the constraints of finance, training, source materials and equipment. Nearly a quarter (24%) recorded a lack of suitable illustrations to use in their materials. (Table 20)
TABLE 20 - Constraints in design potential among postal survey respondents
|
No training received in design |
41 |
(35%) |
|
Available equipment limits design potential |
30 |
(25%) |
|
No knowledge of how to improve design |
14 |
(12%) |
|
Design is not a problem |
4 |
(3%) |
7.1.8 Evaluation and monitoring of materials
Over 40% of organisations were regularly seeking to evaluate the appropriateness and ease of use of materials by their target audience. Over half were regularly influenced in their future production by on-going comments.
Of considerable interest was the low priority given in evaluation to factors which outside agencies (such as the Catholic Secretariat, Ghana) commonly use as arguments against producing information in printed form, such as low levels of literacy, poor design skills, lack of demand. These were not seen as important by those organisations involved in producing printed materials. Reading materials were seen as a priority by local people according to 95% of organisations and an overwhelming 99% felt there were insufficient adequate materials available.
7.1.9 Cultural value of locally generated materials
Many respondents saw their role as producing functional information to support their development work rather than enhancing empowerment among their target communities. However, two thirds of respondents indicated a direct link between the local production of printed information and their relevance to the local culture and nearly a quarter believed that their materials encouraged a sense of pride in the local culture. (Table 21)
TABLE 21 - Attitudes concerning cultural values of locally generated materials
|
Materials valued since relevant to culture, needs and situation |
76 |
(64%) |
|
Materials give sense of pride in our own culture |
27 |
(23%) |
|
People prefer to learn about city life |
7 |
(6%) |
|
People tired of information always coming from capital city |
6 |
(5%) |
A third of respondents gave details of other organisations producing locally produced materials, 19% mentioning one other organisation and 16% giving details of up to six other organisations.
A sample of organisations with a focus on sharing information relating to agriculture were visited in capital cities and in several regional centres in each country. The organisations visited included most of the main agricultural agencies in each country, whether government, religious or international NGOs. Within these organisations there was an enormous range in terms of funding, expertise, training and motivation, ranging from large, well-funded international NGOs with impressive head offices in the capital city to departments within government ministries and religious organisations and finally to small regional GDOs with a few voluntary staff. Organisations mentioned as a source of information by the farmer groups visited, were included whenever possible. Samples of printed information were obtained if available and these were examined to see how many could be described as locally generated materials. In total, 57 organisations were visited in Uganda and 38 in Ghana. Of these, just under a half were based in the capital cities (25 in Kampala and 18 in Accra) and the remainder were regional. Brief details of each organisation's work and any printed information produced, can be found in Appendices J and K. The majority (89%) of organisations were GOs or NGOs, whilst 11% of the organisations fell into the category of GDOs.
7.2.1 Output of printed information in Uganda and Ghana
Organisations visited were assessed for the nature of their output of printed materials. This assessment was based on examples of materials obtained and produced by the organisations, information from staff and observation of the availability of such materials, both at regional and national level. The following figures resulted. (Table 22)
TABLE 22 - Output of printed materials by organisations visited in Ghana and Uganda
|
No materials produced at present for distribution |
28 |
(31%) |
|
A few materials produced at national level |
20 |
(22%) |
|
Good distribution of materials at national level |
16 |
(18%) |
|
A few materials produced at regional level |
15 |
(16%) |
|
Good distribution of materials at regional level |
12 |
(13%) |
|
Total |
91 |
(100%) |
Missing data 4 cases
Just under a third of organisations produced no printed materials for distribution, just under a third were producing materials at a regional or district level and over a third at national level. Based solely on general impressions of the organisations, it was apparent that most larger, well resourced organisations not at present producing printed information for distribution had the staff and facilities to do so, but either lacked the motivation or did not view producing printed information as a priority.
7.2.2 Nature of materials produced
Of the 95 organisations visited in Uganda and Ghana, 28 were producing regular newsletters. On the basis of personal observation and evaluation, just under a third could be classed as appropriate and readily accessible to grassroots readers, whereas over two thirds were readable only by well educated development workers.
Two GDOs were producing regular printed information in local languages targeted at grassroots level readers. KIIRA produced a regular newsletter, and MTEA regular information notes.
|
CASE STUDY - MTEA Officials were enthusiasts for passing on information. When newsletters arrived with useful information they would often use this as the basis for a news sheet in the local language. Funding does not allow for many copies to be made - usually just one or two among each member group. They used a typewriter and silk-screen duplicator with great effect. |
|
CASE STUDY - KIIRA The future of this GDO was uncertain following substantial rifts over finances among officials, with the founder member disassociating himself to form a new organisation but keeping the original name. In the past, a local language news sheet had been produced on a monthly basis and distributed for a small cost. About 800 copies were produced and sold of each issue. KIIRA was one of the first NGOs in Iganga and had about 20 member groups in other parts of Uganda. They also produced primers in local languages. |
Both were based in Iganga, Uganda. Production of their materials was severely restricted by lack of funding, mainly to purchase stencils, ink and paper. In both case studies, newsletters were charged for but the small cost which people were prepared to pay was not sufficient to cover production charges.
Aside from reports (which are rarely of significant public interest), the other most frequently produced materials noted during the visits were information booklets or leaflets (27%) and training notes or manuals (9%).
Few NGOs with a national coverage were producing what could be termed locally generated materials in agriculture. Exceptions to this were GILLBT and the NFED literacy programmes, which both had national coverage. They were also the agencies producing the greatest range of local language materials, which were accessible for grassroots farmers, albeit with little coverage of agricultural topics. Smaller regional organisations who were working closely with farmers, and therefore better aware of their needs, were most likely to produce locally generated materials. (Table 23)
Table 23 contains one item which was not written in local languages but in English, but was included because it was largely visual and therefore potentially useful for any language (World Vision), though preferably with a trainer able to read the small amount of English text.
TABLE 23 - Organisations producing materials on sustainable agriculture in local languages in Uganda and Ghana
|
ORGANISATION |
LOCATION |
TYPE |
DISTN |
INFORMATION PRODUCED |
FEE |
|
Africa 2000 |
Kampala |
NGO |
national |
Environews - quarterly newsletter in English and Luganda |
free |
|
AT U-Press |
Lira |
NGO |
regional |
Information leaflets in several local languages on oil seeds |
free |
|
Environmental Alert |
Kampala |
NGO |
national |
Handouts planned in four local languages |
not yet known |
|
Heifer International |
Kampala |
NGO |
national |
Large range of booklets, some available in local languages |
charge |
|
Women's Desk, Catholic Diocese |
Jinja |
NGO |
regional |
Training manuals and reading books in Lusoga |
free |
|
KIIRA |
Iganga |
GDO |
regional |
Primers and newsletters in local language |
minimal charge |
|
MMM |
Mbale |
NGO |
regional |
Manuals, leaflets and booklets in Lumasaba |
unknown |
|
MCAI |
Masaka |
GDO |
regional |
Series of booklets in Luganda |
charge |
|
MTEA |
Iganga |
GDO |
regional |
News sheets and notes produced on silk screen printer or duplicator |
minimal charge |
|
UCAA |
Kampala |
NGO |
regional |
Change Agent - training booklets in Runyankore and Rukiga |
free to agents |
|
UNFA |
Lira |
GO |
regional |
Newsletters in Luo |
unknown |
|
VI Tree Planting Project |
Masaka |
NGO |
regional |
Simple handouts in several languages, printed on card |
free |
|
Dept of Agriculture |
Kitgum |
GO |
regional |
Series of four booklets - Yoo Maber in Luo - well produced |
minimal charge |
|
Catholic Diocese |
Mbarara |
NGO |
regional |
Sustainable agriculture booklet: Ohingye Otungye |
charge |
|
Presbyterian Agric Info Services |
Tamale |
NGO |
regional |
Booklets and fact sheets. Quarterly newsletter - Labaari |
free |
|
Dagbani Literacy Project |
Tamale |
NGO |
regional |
Booklets and readers in Oagbani on agriculture |
minimal charge |
|
GILLBT |
Tamale |
NGO |
national |
Newspapers, primers and Christian materials in various local languages - some on agriculture |
minimal charge |
|
NFED Programme |
Accra |
GO |
national |
Newspapers and primers in various local languages - some on agriculture |
charge |
|
Information Support Unit |
Accra |
GO |
national |
Small quantities of excellent flipcharts that could be used for all languages |
free to staff |
|
World Vision |
Accra |
NGO |
national |
Farmer's Guide - well illustrated, few words, could be used for all languages |
charge |
7.2.3 Identification of target audiences
Material gathered during this overview revealed that the majority of GOs and NGOs producing materials at national level were printing technical information without first clearly defining and targeting their primary audience. The consequence was that educated staff in such organisations were producing materials about their activities for an audience which often largely mirrored their own staff. In terms of enhancing networking this could certainly bring benefits. However, most organisations seemed unaware that by failing to define and target their publications at any particular audience they were in effect isolating many potential readers who would be unable to cope with understanding the language level used (eg: Service, COU; GTZ Notes; Technoserve).
A university or college education is a considerable achievement in most developing countries. The skills of academic writing are hard won and not easy to put to one side. Many NGOs were aware of international newsletters and journals and had used these as models for sharing information about their own work, often very effectively, and had found these very useful to provide evidence of their effectiveness with donor agencies. However, many newsletters collected during the overview were written in a style and language complexity more easily understood by readers with a university-level education. Most organisations were proud of their newsletters and staff seemed unaware of how limited an audience they would reach due to the complexity of language used.
7.2.4 Distribution within target audience
Almost none of the sample materials collected were observed in the hands of members of the RPAs or GDOs visited. Even extension agents rarely had access to copies of booklets and information produced by central departments of extension.
An exception was the quarterly newsletter Environews, produced by Africa 2000 (Uganda), largely funded by Danish and Canadian funding. This is produced half in English and half in Luganda with 2,000 copies distributed. Aside from Footsteps, this was one of the very few newsletters seen in the hands of group members in Uganda. Multiple copies are normally sent to groups for distribution among members.
The few organisations with good libraries were almost invariably in organisations with some expatriate involvement and therefore, presumably, a greater awareness of free sources of information from their own countries and the ability to order in foreign exchange.
Outside capital cities and main regional centres in both Uganda and Ghana, few bookshops were apparent. Two main commercial networks were found to be well represented in smaller towns. These were stationery shops stocking standard school textbooks and Catholic Centres providing stationery and liturgical materials. Particularly in Ghana, they stocked an extensive range of local language booklets widely used by priests to share with their congregations. Two of these booklets (one now out of print) looked at agriculture. The Catholic centres were nationally run, whereas the stationery shops were largely independent. Agricultural suppliers of seed and chemicals were also observed in most larger towns and could provide another useful outlet.
7.2.5 Limiting factors in the production of locally generated materials
When respondents from the postal survey in Phase I were asked to consider the limiting factors that prevent them from producing more printed materials, considerably more than half indicated a lack of financial resources as the major limiting factor, either for the purchase of equipment or supplies, to pay for staff or through the limited ability of local people to pay for materials. Next in importance was the need to develop further skills in production, through training. (Table 24)
TABLE 24 - Limiting factors in the production of printed materials for respondents of the postal survey
|
|
AGREEING | |
|
Lack of people with time to produce materials |
138 |
(58%) |
|
Lack of funding for equipment and resources |
137 |
(58%) |
|
Lack of skills in producing materials |
87 |
(37%) |
|
Local people have no money to buy reading materials |
71 |
(30%) |
|
Lack of good source information and materials |
41 |
(17%) |
|
So few literate, there is no market for materials |
30 |
(13%) |
|
Reading materials are not a priority here |
30 |
(13%) |
|
Lack of interest among local people |
16 |
(7%) |
|
Too many useful materials already available |
7 |
(3%) |
|
Poor design means no-one wants to read |
3 |
(1%) |
Up to 3 limiting factors could be mentioned.
The Phase III research highlighted these results through observation of facilities available within each organisation and the motivation and inclination of staff towards the production of printed information. The ready availability of computers, printers, photocopiers and duplicators observed in the offices of large NGOs and GOs in towns was in sharp contrast to the desperation of several of the GDOs visited who had been trying for several years to obtain even a typewriter.
At regional level the limiting factors identified in the postal survey results were similar. Out of the 12 organisations found in Uganda and Ghana who were producing well targeted regional materials, a half lacked adequate funding and nearly a half lacked sufficient personnel to produce more. Lack of motivation was not apparent here as a limiting factor but, rather, a lack of resources.
However, within the larger organisations producing well targeted materials and operating at national level, limiting factors differed, with a third lacking sufficient personnel and a third lacking motivation.
7.2.6 Role of individuals
The production of useful and imaginative materials calls for a certain creativity and persistence of character sufficient to retain the original vision through all the tedious stages of production. The underlying motivation of those who were producing locally generated materials seemed simply to be an altruistic desire to pass on relevant knowledge. Certainly there was no financial gain to be made at all from their production, and indeed often individuals were providing funding from their own sources to continue production. Several individuals were producing some excellent materials but often with very little financial backing. Where such individuals were working within a team, they were more likely to receive backing and support for their initiatives. This included staff within MTEA, MCAI, Suntaa Nuntaa, FURA and LABE.
|
CASE STUDY - LABE The initiator of LABE (Literacy and Adult Basic Education) had a real passion to enhance literacy skills and to provide locally generated materials. He had established LABE whilst still a student at Makerere University and was the driving force behind the organisation, ably assisted by several other like-minded and committed staff. LABE worked directly with local literacy committees in different areas of the country, providing training, linking them up with government support when available and providing literacy materials. They provided training in the construction and use of silk screen duplicators. They had been criticised for 'encouraging groups to move backwards' instead of making funding requests for duplicators and computers. They were unrepentant, seeing silk screen duplicators as a cheap, simple and readily available method of producing locally generated materials. They were flexible in their manner of working and very keen to encourage networking and overlap between experts and local people in the production of LGM. A regular newsletter, The Lit, was produced to enhance networking and to share information |
|
CASE STUDY - MCAI MCAI (Modern Campaign against Illiteracy) was a small organisation, founded by an individual who had written an extensive series of booklets in Luganda to aid literacy skills. Booklets ranged from primers to teaching on morals and good living. He arranged publishing himself and marketed them through private bookshops. Sales did not cover all the expenses, making it a struggle to find funding for further booklets to be produced |
The role of creative individuals seems key and without them, even given excellent facilities, production of printed information may not be forthcoming. These people are often exceptional and persistent individuals able to overcome innumerable obstacles - mostly financial constraints -for the satisfaction of seeing information available in printed form. Given the absence of any profit motive, such individuals invariably try to meet the agenda of their target audience.
7.2.7 The promotion of literacy skills
At least two thirds of RPAs visited had some members with good literacy skills. However, the paucity of actual information available to read in both English and the local language on a regular basis meant that many group members had little encouragement to maintain their literacy skills effectively. Many group members mentioned that they owned Bibles and hymn books in the local language. Some weekly newspapers in both Uganda and Ghana are also available in the main language groups. There was a paucity of novels, cultural history and light reading. It was noticeable that animators tended to have considerably higher levels of literacy than other group members.
Most of the local language materials viewed were produced by literacy organisations. They consisted of primers, some post-literacy primers and in Ghana local language newspapers. In several groups visited in Ghana only one primer was available for the whole group, though officially each learner should have their own primer. Despite the impressive range of post-literacy reading materials developed and available in Accra, these had not reached some of the groups visited in the north. NFED has supported the production of newspapers in each of the 15 languages. Production is much less regular than anticipated, but where distributed these have been much appreciated by learners. Most are professionally printed - however, training in the use of silk screen duplicators has been provided with the hope of decentralising production.
Government and outside funding supported the national literacy programmes in both Ghana and Uganda. GILLBT was largely funded by its parent organisation, the Summer Institute of Linguistics in the USA. Literacy programmes do have considerable ability and motivation to produce local language materials but generally work in isolation from other rural development sectors and from small national organisations such as LABE and KIIRA.
|
CASE STUDY - THE YOO MABER SERIES Three staff in the Department of Agriculture in Kitgum produced a series of four booklets in Luo/Acholi - the Yoo Maber series. This series was probably the best example of cheap, but well produced locally generated materials seen in Uganda. Their aim was to communicate practical knowledge and skills in the local language. The booklets were A5 in size, 20 pages long, with excellent illustrations considering they were duplicated. Initial funding to print 200 copies of each was provided by an Italian NGO (AVSI) helping with the rehabilitation of Kitgum District in 1989 and 1990. The actual unit cost of production was 1,000/= and they were sold at a subsidised price of500/= to local farmers. There has been considerable ongoing interest in these booklets from local farmers. The main author would like to reprint at least 1,000 copies of each to meet demand. Unfortunately, no funding has been forthcoming, leading to an enormous waste of excellent communication skills. The Ugandan authors (one of whom has since died) would no doubt have produced many more materials, given encouragement and funding (personal correspondence). The difficult security situation in the north of Uganda during the research visits (with several roads closed) prevented a personal visit by the researcher to the Departments concerned in Kitgum and information was received by correspondence following mention in the postal survey. |
Staff at the Women's Desk in the Catholic Diocese of Jinja were one of the few examples of groups producing a range of local language materials who were not working exclusively in literacy training. They worked with a total of 184 women's groups within 3 districts and 10 parishes. In addition, they helped with 70 adult learning and literacy classes. They have produced training manuals for literacy instructors and a series of four reading books in Lusoga, the local language, which were distributed free of charge among 2,000 literacy trainees. Before materials are produced there was consultation at grassroots level to determine the most appropriate content to gain the interest of readers. All materials were commercially produced and financed through the Catholic Church.
7.2.8 Extension training materials
Within Uganda, production of agricultural information had previously been the responsibility of each District Ministry of Agriculture. Production was then centralised and moved to Entebbe, in the headquarters of MAAID. With the opening of the Agricultural Research Information Systems (ARIS) in 1995, this excellently equipped resource centre and library at Kawanda Research Station, just outside Kampala, has now taken up the task of producing materials. A good range of earlier MAAID materials for extension officers and farmers was available within ARIS. The challenge for them to provide a range of useful booklets for FEWs and farmers is of enormous importance and one of the key staff is at present undergoing postgraduate training in this area of expertise. In terms of resources and access to information, ARIS is ideally placed to disseminate information. Co-operation with rural farmers, graphic designers and groups such as LABE with experience of post-literacy work would help in determining the target audience and ensuring readability.
In Ghana, the newly revitalised Department of Agricultural Extension Services is now responsible for the coordination of printed information. It plans to respond to information and ideas assembled by regional staff, in the hope that this will ensure that materials produced are timely and appropriate to farmers' needs. A large range of previously produced material was available, including some excellent A4 sized books with large, clear illustrations and one flip chart, again with excellent artwork and diagrams. Nothing was available in local languages and distribution of the present material was not apparent in regional centres visited by the researchers. Certainly the resources, skills, funding and personnel were available to produce a wide range of materials.
However, though both of these centres were able to reveal a considerable range of useful materials (if somewhat didactic in approach), local extension offices sometimes failed to have even a single copy. Even more of a concern was that the extension agents interviewed seemed both unaware of their existence and of the resources and information services ostensibly available to back up their work.
7.2.9 Summary of Phase III: Regional overview
This information was based upon informal staff interviews, personal impressions and an assessment of the printed information collected rather than on a rigorous quantitative survey. However, the trends revealed are very clear. NGOs and GOs with a national focus rarely saw the provision of printed information for farmers as a priority, particularly in local languages, despite the fact that most had the capability and staffing to produce such printed material. NGOs and GOs instead concentrated their efforts on networking with similar organisations. In addition, distribution networks were extremely poor so that even when useful materials were available they often failed to reach their target audience.
The information gathered also revealed that the capacity of GDOs was of considerable potential. Staff within these small organisations had a genuine understanding of the needs of farmers, high levels of literacy in both the national and local language, and tended to be highly committed in their work. They often viewed the production of printed materials as a priority. However, their capacity was severely curtailed through lack of funding, equipment, training and source materials and their potential largely unrecognised.
Findings from Phase II confirm that members of RPAs relied heavily on information sources which were either endogenous or local. Access to exogenous sources of information was severely restricted, as Table 25 reveals.
TABLE 25 - Access to various sources of exogenous information by members of RPAs
|
Access to radio |
53% |
|
Access to several sources of printed agricultural information within group |
6% |
|
Access to a weekly newspaper |
9% |
|
Monthly contact with extension agent |
41% |
66% of groups commented on how much they valued printed sources of information, despite their lack of access to them. RPAs with good access to printed information were much more likely to hold regular training within group meetings and to have a positive outlook about the future of the group. Of the 8 RPAs with direct access to copies of Footsteps, all circulated copies among members, retained past copies and had made extensive use of ideas both during meetings and in practice. On several occasions during the visits two members were observed sitting together, poring over a copy of either Footsteps or Environews (the only other newsletter observed several times in the hands of group members), working hard to understand the text in English (or Luganda) and helping each other with difficult words, emphasising the value of information in improving literacy skills.
7.3.1 Design preferences
An exercise to examine design preferences among members of farmer groups was carried out using sample pages from Footsteps and details are available in Appendices E and F.
Results showed clear preferences for design incorporating plenty of clear illustrations with little text. This reinforces Linney's views (1995) of the value of visual literacy. The preferred cartoon had few speech bubbles but plenty of explanation beneath each picture, a finding echoing Zeilinski's (1986) in India. Overall preference was for the cartoon which incorporated a lengthy explanation. This was followed by pages with plenty of illustration and little text and then, surprisingly, by a page making good use of boxes in the layout (but no illustrations). Half of the respondents preferred large (16 point) text, but closely followed by the smallest text size, (12 point), with some respondents commenting that small text allowed more information to be included. Clear illustrations were preferred to photos 'because you could understand the picture better', confirming the findings of Fugelsang (1982) and Epskamp (1984).
Of the materials observed in Ghana and Uganda, only two publications met these preferences in full. One was a World Vision publication using clear diagrams and virtually no text. The other was a set of well produced flip charts from the Department of Extension in Accra. None of the groups included in the research had access to either of these.
7.3.2 Information flow within RPAs
All established groups were sharing information, usually simply through the observation of their activities by other members of the community and casual conversation. However, the more proactive sharing of new ideas among members was often well organised within farmer groups. Regular (every 2-4 weeks) training sessions for members were held by 35% of associations, with nearly 60% holding occasional (2-3 times a year) training sessions within the group. New information was usually mentioned and often discussed at length during meetings before further action or training sessions were planned. The time and consideration given to the sharing of new ideas during group meetings was considerable and provided a substantial force for change. RPAs who carried out regular training were 'hungry for new ideas' and actively sought views and new information from the visiting research team members.
Members already exposed to several sources of printed information were always keen to obtain more. 'We would like many more new ideas in agriculture, especially if they come through the church' (referring to a Baptist church with a pastor who has been very supportive of the group). 'It would be useful if we could get information through print,' commented members of Bayiri Women's Group in northern Ghana, none of them literate. However, the pastor could read English and would share with them. Several members were attending night school to become literate in Dagaare.
Many members of RPAs commented that one key advantage of printed information was the ability to refer back to it for necessary details when appropriate.
'Information is better coming from a book because you might forget things, but you can check them up in a book.'WEGBE WOMEN'S GROUP, GHANA
The effectiveness of printed information in sharing ideas is likely to increase proportionally with the access of farmers to such information. During the research there were several examples of ideas taken up by farmers with success, based purely on something a group member had read, showing that there can be real confidence in information which comes only via the printed word...
· Rwancereere Farmers Association on the Rwandan border were successfully controlling gully erosion with information from Footsteps.· Buluba Youth Group followed printed instructions to build several successful vegetable nurseries.
· The NGO, Suntaa Nuntaa, distributed instructions for maintaining tree nurseries, used and found useful by two groups visited.
· Instructions on book keeping (from Footsteps) were in use by the Treasurer of the Christian Friendly Association.
Groups who had gained confidence in their own knowledge, whether through experience, through successfully working together or in their achievements as a group entity, were found to be actively passing on information outside their group on a regular basis, either through community meetings, training of small groups, drama or role plays or through some kind of printed information.
